Do you really know?

Imagine humanity only using half the brains at its disposal to solve the many scientific challenges it faces in the present and future. While such an idea might seem crazy, it’s not so far from reality. In recognition of International Women’s Day, which took place on Monday, let’s discuss a form of bias known as the Matilda Effect.

Over the years, very few female scientists have got the same level of acclaim as their male counterparts, whether it be in the history books or on award winner lists. As a simple illustration, if you ask someone to name a female scientist, Marie Curie may well be the first name they come up with. Even so, her husband is often referenced as having contributed to her work, and she is rarely referred to by her last name alone.

Where did the name Matilda effect come from? Do you have any examples of forgotten female scientists? What can we do to help these female scientists be remembered? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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What is cyclothymia?
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The term cyclothymia was coined in the late 19th century by German psychiatrist Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum. It describes a clinical situation which has many similarities with bipolar disorder, although its symptoms are less severe. It affects 6% of people but to get diagnosed takes 10-12 years on average and seeing several different doctors.

We talk about something being a disorder when it has an impact on everyday life, and that’s the case with cyclothymia. It usually comes on during adolescence or early adulthood. Those affected are highly sensitive and can quickly change moods in an intense way.

During the depressive phase, they may suddenly lose all enthusiasm for something that interested them before, like exercise or work. At other times, they may have inflated self-esteem, be more talkative, hyperactive or unpredictable. This phase is known as hypomania and usually lasts four or more days.

So how is cyclothymia different from bipolar disorder? Why is it so difficult to diagnose then? Is cyclothymia a curable disorder? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Even months after infection, some Covid-19 patients have continued to suffer from symptoms such as extreme fatigue, lack of sleep or breathing problems. And these are mostly people who have long been discharged from hospital, or never even went there in the first place. This form of the virus is generally multi-symptomatic and protean.

The term long Covid was actually coined by a group of infected patients, who experienced it during the first wave of the pandemic. They had to campaign for months to raise public awareness and draw greater attention from the medical community, getting it on the agenda for scientific research.

Does long Covid affect a high proportion of patients? How would I know if I had long Covid? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Clubhouse is a 100% audio social networking app. It’s suddenly everywhere, having accrued 2 million users despite being created less than a year ago in March 2020. Its current valuation is over $1bn. In the era of lockdowns, social distancing and an increased need to communicate with the outside world, you could say Clubhouse came along at just the right time.

Wait a minute, it’s not like we’re lacking in social networks to choose from. What’s different about this one? So it’s a bit like listening to Do You Really Know then, is it? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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We’re all familiar with how traditional vaccines work. We get injected with a virus, or a weakened version, so that our immune system learns how to fight against it. This is most often done with a little jab in the arm. But scientists have actually been working on other injection methods for years.

Spray vaccines, or mucosal vaccines, are more effective than traditional vaccines for some illnesses. Such vaccines already exist for cholera or rotavirus, and research is ongoing to find one for whooping cough or HIV. This method is comparable to the oral vaccine, thanks to which we were able to eradicate polio throughout the world. A number of pharmaceutical companies in the US, France, Germany and China are trying to find a Covid-19 spray vaccine.

Are they doing that for people like me who hate needles? How does this all relate to the vaccine? How do nasal sprays compare to Covid-19 vaccine injections? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Quantum technologies are tools which use the physical properties of tiny particles like ions or photons. It might seem abstract, but these technological breakthroughs look set to be a game-changer in computing and communications.

The UK government has already invested over £1bn in quantum science and technology, with the country is seen as one of the world’s leaders in the field. The National Quantum Technologies Programme receives funding to develop new technologies like electric car batteries and advancing imaging systems to detect cancer.

Are quantum technologies totally new then? How does quantum computing actually work? So can we all expect to be using quantum technologies soon? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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With a population of 1.4 billion inhabitants and a surface area 39 times larger than that of the UK, China has seen mass surveillance systems rolled out in recent decades.

Take video surveillance and facial recognition for example, with over 600 million security cameras throughout the country. Or the controlling and censorship of the country’s most popular social network WeChat. And now the Chinese authorities are taking this to the next level, with the social credit system that evaluates citizens’ behaviour and perceived trustworthiness.

It’s the brainchild of Lin Junyue, a researcher from Beijing who took inspiration from the American insurance system. The original idea was to verify the solvency of individuals and companies, but it has evolved a great deal since.

So how does the system work? It sounds like Black Mirror or 1984! Aren’t the country’s laws enough? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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In 2017, ‘Oumuamua became the first interstellar object to be detected passing through our solar system. The discovery of this mysterious object has led to a number of theories about its origins. Could ‘Oumuamua hold the secret to how other solar systems were formed, or be proof that aliens exist?

How did we first discover the existence of ‘Oumuamua then? So what are the most convincing theories? And what do other scientists think of the alien hypothesis? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Critical thinking is the intellectual process of evaluating information, thinking clearly and rationally as a guide to belief and action. You could see it as an attitude whereby no statement or piece of information is accepted as true or false, without first being carefully analysed. Simplistic conflations, generalisations and preconceptions are all challenged, as is any kind of statement made without evidence.

Critical thinking has its roots in the teachings of ancient Greek philosophers Socrates and Plato. Throughout history, philosophers like Francis Bacon, René Descartes and Emmanuel Kant have used it to create the basis for methodical thought.

So how do I go about becoming a critical thinker then? What about religion? Surely it can’t be possible for religious beliefs and critical thinking to coexist, can it? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Many people wrongly assume that all women immediately find their feet after having a baby. In reality, it can be an overwhelming phase which is often neglected.

The postpartum period begins as the mother’s body starts returning to a non-pregnant state. It’s commonly used to refer to the first six weeks following childbirth, but it may last significantly longer, with a range of physical and psychological symptoms.

So what actually happens during the postpartum period?

Postpartum is a time of recovery for the new mother’s body. The uterus, which grows up to fifteen times bigger during pregnancy, contracts and returns to its normal size. Changing levels of hormones like progesterone and estrogen can cause hot flashes and sweating.

It’s best to stock up on disposable underwear for leaking and bleeding. Post-childbirth vaginal discharge, known as lochia, contains blood, mucus and uterine tissue. After the postpartum period is over, you should start feeling more like yourself again. Your body may also be ready to have sex.

Is postpartum just a fancy word for the baby blues then?

We shouldn’t confuse postpartum depression with the baby blues, which affect up to 80% of mothers. These short-term mood dips usually disappear within a week or two after the baby’s birth.

Meanwhile, postpartum depression is more severe and lasts longer. The World Health Organisation has estimated that between 10% and 15% of women experience it. Whereas a mum with the baby blues might see her moods swing quickly from happy to sad, postpartum depression is characterised by constant feelings of hopelessness, worthlessness and loneliness.

Needless to say, this can quickly become overwhelming in the life of a young mother, making it difficult to complete daily activities for herself or her baby.

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Ketamine is a psychoactive drug, which is known for being both a horse tranquiliser horse and a party drug for ravers looking to experience a psychedelic trip. lsd kick in It has also recently emerged that ketamine is an effective antidepressant. Its use for medical purposes has been approved in the United States and Europe.
edge of space

Ketamine was first synthesised in 1962. It’s widely used by vets to anesthetize animals, but it’s also been used to ease pain in humans for some time. It’s common knowledge that ketamine was given to American soldiers requiring emergency surgery during the Vietnam war. To this day, it’s used in other procedures like skin grafts and cardiac catheterisation.
techno

In the 90s, ketamine got a reputation as an illicit party drug. Nicknamed Special K, ravers made it their recreational drug of choice for its hallucinogenic and dissociative effects. Of course, using it is illegal and potentially dangerous. Mixed with alcohol or in a high dose, it can lead to respiratory failure and death.

What are the scientific effects of ketamine?

Ketamine acts as an antagonist on a number of neurotransmitters, in particular glutamate, the brain’s most common chemical messenger. When taken in high doses, it prevents glutamate from circulating, causing the anaesthetising effect. But in small doses it increases production, which is what leads to hallucinations. woosh

In depressed people, some brain cell connections have been destroyed by significant stress or trauma. An article published in Science magazine explained that ketamine can prompt those connections to regrow, thereby acting as a treatment for depression.

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In January 2021, the European Parliament approved a “right to disconnect” policy which passed relatively unnoticed in the midst of the ongoing Covid-19 pandemic. This resolution recognises workers rights to switch off outside of working hours, in order to protect their mental health, wellbeing and private lives.

A Eurofound survey estimated that one third of all workers were working remotely last year. Since the start of the pandemic, a sedentary and “always-on” lifestyle has become the norm for many. While remote work clearly has some advantages, staying connected and available around the clock can have negative effects. These include anxiety, depression or even a burnout.

Is burnout similar to depression then?

Not really, because it’s seen as an occupational phenomenon, rather than a medical condition. The World Health Organisation defines burn-out as a “syndrome conceptualized as resulting from chronic workplace stress that has not been successfully managed.” American psychiatrist Herbert Freudenberger coined the term burn-out back in 1974 when he became the first person to publish research on the syndrome in the Journal of Social Issues.

How can I tell if one of my colleagues is experiencing a burn-out then?

There may be physical, emotional, cognitive, interpersonal and motivational signs. The three characteristics of occupational burn-out are: feelings of exhaustion, increased mental distance from, or negative feelings towards, your job and reduced efficiency. Furthermore, Mayo Clinic cites a lack of work-life balance, a high workload, overtime and a monotonous job among the risk factors for burnout.

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Most people associate sex with pleasure but research suggests that 60% of women have already experienced pain during sex without daring to tell their partner.

Dyspareunia is the medical term for pain which occurs before, during or after intercourse. The problem can affect men, but is far more common in women. Dyspareunia may be persistent or recurrent, sometimes leading to a loss of libibdo or forms of sexual dysfunction like vaginismus.

What does this pain feel like?

There are two main types of dyspareunia: superficial and deep. Superficial pain can affect the clitoris, vulva or at the opening of the vagina. It may come on as soon as penetration begins, or even before. Deeper pain is generally felt in the vault of the vagina or within the pelvis upon penetration. It may be more acute in certain sexual positions.

So what are the causes of dyspareunia? Is there any hope for those suffering with dyspareunia? What can they do to stop? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Feeling hungry? It’s Pancake Day tomorrow, which means you’ve still got time to choose your favourite toppings! Pancake Day is also known as Shrove Tuesday, which marks the day before the start of Lent on the Christian calendar. The date changes every year, as it depends on when Easter falls.

So how did a religious date get to be known as Pancake Day?

Well, according to Christian tradition, Pancake Day marks the last day of excess allowed before Lent. The following day is Ash Wednesday, and the beginning of 40 days of prayer and fasting. During Lent, practising Christians often give up something as a personal sacrifice to remember the forty days Jesus spent in the desert. Lent ends on Easter Sunday, when Christians celebrate Jesus’s resurrection from the dead, after being crucified.

How far back does the celebration of Pancake Day go?

The tradition of making pancakes dates back to at least the Middle Ages. Preparing pancakes was considered ideal to use up rich foodstuffs like butter, eggs and milk, before Lent. Like many religious festivals, customs vary by region. In other countries, people eat doughnuts, omelettes or pastries instead of pancakes.

In the UK, pancake races are held, with participants in fancy dress running down the street flipping pancakes in a frying pan. Elsewhere, Shrove Tuesday is known as Mardi Gras, which translates into English as Fat Tuesday.

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Since the turn of the year, the threat of new coronavirus variants has emerged. As a result, many are questioning how effective different types of face covering are against these more contagious strains.

The World Health Organisation has stressed that cloth masks still work just as well, because the mode of transmission is the same, despite the mutation. However, governments in some countries have encouraged people to favour surgical masks or FFP2 masks.

Manufacturers are on a mission to make more efficient face coverings available to the public. Some even claim their products have germ-killing properties which can destroy the coronavirus!

How can a mask kill a virus? Is that really possible?

Remember that the coronavirus doesn’t simply circulate on its own. It’s always carried by something like a drop of saliva. When we wear a face covering of any kind, we mainly protect others from our own droplets.

A standard mask filters the majority of pathogens but can never be 100% successful. Antiviral masks are more proactive in that they don’t just seek to stop viruses and bacteria from penetrating, but to kill it and prevent them from staying on the surface. The best form of defence is attack, as they say!

Some use antimicrobial agents, like proteins, which bind to the virus and stop it from replicating. Others are infused with metals like copper or silver, which are known to have antimicrobial properties.

In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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You may have seen headlines about it in recent weeks, and it’s certainly one of the financial stories of the year so far. The Gamestop short squeeze saw Wall Street tremble at least temporarily due to the actions of amateur traders from Reddit. And this battle is perhaps just the start of a long war.

To understand the short squeeze, let’s go back to the beginning. Gamestop is an American chain of video game stores which has a presence in many countries across the world. It’s well-known among gamers, but has been struggling of late due to competition from digital distribution.

That might sound like sad news, but some American hedge funds saw an opportunity to make money by effectively betting on the company’s stock falling in value. That’s known as shorting and it’s seen as a form of vulture capitalism, because of the disregard it shows for the businesses in question.

How does short-selling actually work in practice?

OK it’s a little complicated for novice traders but let’s try with a simplified example. Say you expect the value of a company’s shares to drop. You borrow a single share in the company from someone and then immediately sell it.

When the value drops, you can make a profit by buying back a new share at a lower price, and simply paying it back to the original lender. This is what some hedge funds like Melvin Capital did with Gamestop, but in far higher quantities than a single share of course!

So what went wrong for the hedge funds in this case? Anybody can buy stocks? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Just last week, Myanmar underwent its fourth coup d’état in 63 years, ten years after becoming a democracy. Although no blood was spilled, several members of the ruling National League for Democracy Party were placed under house arrest by the military. That includes Aung San Suu Kyi, the elected State Counsellor. The Tatmadaw military declared a year-long state of emergency.

What are the main characteristics of a coup d’état?

The term, which has been around since the 18th century, comes from French words meaning “a strike against the state”. In 2013, the University of Illinois’ Cline Center for Democracy defined a coup d’état as “the sudden and irregular removal, or displacement, of the executive authority of an independent government.” Their project listed twelve different types of coup.

So the purpose of a coup is usually to seize power. A coup isn’t necessarily violent, but many are. In 2011, American researchers Jonathan Powell and Clayton Thyne identified three common criteria in coups d’état. Firstly, the coup has to be carried out against the executive authority, by the military or other elites within the state, using anti-constitutional methods.

Another synonym is the Swiss-German word “putsch”, which is also used in English. It refers to military coups, such as Myanmar 2021. When it’s the people who overthrow the government and take power, we talk instead about a revolution.

Can you give me some examples of recent coups d’état? What about January’s storming of the U.S. Capitol? Could that be considered a coup d’état? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Diogenes Syndrome is a behavioural disorder which mainly affects older adults. It’s also known as senile squalor syndrome, which is perhaps a more evocative name for what it entails. It happens when people neglect to take care of themselves, leading to poor personal hygiene and an extremely dirty or messy home. The unsanitary conditions in which these people live can lead to other health problems.

How could anyone get to live in such squalor?

Many people affected are totally unaware that anything is wrong with their home, or simply living in denial. Untrusting of others, they often live in isolation and may turn down offers of help from family or friends. They are compulsive hoarders, even keeping rubbish in their homes which can attract insects and rodents.

So their living situation may only come to light after they get sick or have an accident like a fall which results in them needing medical attention. In other scenarios, neighbours may investigate due to smells coming from the person’s home, or the building becoming infested with pests like cockroaches. Extreme cases have even seen fires or serious leaks due to the squalor of someone with Diogenes syndrome.

Wait a minute; who is Diogenes and what does he have to do with all this? Who is affected by this behavioural disorder? What’s the best way to help someone with Diogenes Syndrome? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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From the outset, each vial of the Pfizer and BioNTech Covid-19 vaccine was supposed to contain five doses. But it has since emerged that a sixth dose can in fact be extracted from each vial. So, is this extra dose a welcome surprise which will allow vaccination programmes to move forward more quickly?

Let’s go back to Germany at the end of December 2020. The European Medicines Agency recommended that the Cominarty vaccine from BioNTech and Pfizer be authorised. According to official guidelines, each vial contained enough for five vaccine doses.

The two pharmaceutical giants then asked the EU to allow doctors to extract an extra sixth dose from their vials. The EMA regulator approved this proposition on January 8th 2021, and a spokesperson from BioNTech insisted that the cost of the EU’s vaccine order would remain the same.

So are we saying that European member states are both saving money and able to vaccinate more people with the same number of vials?

It seemed that way at first. But ten days later, Pfizer and BioNTech changed tune. As each vial was now considered to contain six doses, rather than five, they would deliver less vials to European states.

Having ordered 600 million doses of the Cominarty vaccine, the EU would now receive only 100 million vials, rather than the initially expected 120 million.

What’s going to happen with all the remaining vials then? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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“Why are you being so sensitive?” “Stop overreacting”. It’s common to hear people criticise others for being highly sensitive, but it actually often isn’t a choice.

Sensory processing sensitivity, or SPS, is a personality trait which describes how individuals’ levels of sensitivity vary when reacting to physical, social and emotional stimuli. This is down to differences in the central nervous system and cognitive processing.

Discussion of SPS is recent. It only began in the 1990s, thanks to American psychologists Elaine and Arthur Aron. They designed a questionnaire to measure sensitivity and estimated that 15-20% of the world’s population have high SPS. Such people are known as HSPs, or highly sensitive people.

Wow, that’s a lot! Could I be an HSP without realising it?

There are a number of telltale signs. On the physical side, a highly sensitive person may react in a very positive or negative way to certain sounds, odours or even touches. Some examples are bright lights, coarse fabrics and loud noises.

Emotional reactions, both positive and negative, can also be strong. Highly sensitive people may have trouble accepting criticism, as well as compliments. They can switch quickly from joy to anger, or from love to apathy. Due to their heightened empathy, they understand what other people are feeling.

If you’re a neurotypical, you may find HSPs tactless when describing their feelings.

Is high sensitivity considered an illness? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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This term first appeared in LGBT+ circles; if you’re wondering what an “enby” is, just say it slower: N - B, which stands for non-binary. So it refers to a phobia of non-binary people, which is also sometimes called exorsexism.

If you think back to our episode about non-binary gender identity, you’ll remember it means people who do not feel exclusively male or female. For example, some may identify as having two or more genders, or none at all.

There isn’t much data on the subject, but statistics gathered by Nat Titman in 2014 suggest that at least 1 in 250 people are non-binary. In reality, the figure may be much higher.

British Grammy-winning singer Sam Smith and Netflix star Brigette Lundy-Pain are just a couple of the numerous celebrities who describe themselves as non-binary.

So why do some people have a problem with NBs? And what does enbyphobic behaviour look like?

Enbyphobes often argue that being non-binary isn’t a real thing. They see it as a fad or temporary identity crisis affecting confused, attention-seeking members of today’s younger generations. And of course non-binary people don’t appreciate not being taken seriously. They see enbyphobia as a form of systemic oppression.

Some people refuse to use gender-neutral pronouns like ‘they’ or ‘zie’, even when corrected. Assuming, ignoring or invalidating a person's gender is called misgendering. Most NBs understand that mistakes happen, but choosing to wilfully ignore a person’s choice of pronoun is seen as disrespectful and enbyphobic.

Other common examples of enbyphobia in society are only having male and female bathrooms, only listing two genders on a form or using non-inclusive phrases such as “ladies and gentlemen” or “boys and girls”.

Non-binary people may also be more likely to be victims of harassment and assault.

What’s the difference between transphobia and enbyphobia? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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ASMR is short for autonomous sensory meridian response. It refers to the pleasant tingling sensations some people feel when triggered by certain sensory stimuli. These sensations tend to begin on the scalp and work their way down throughout the body, bringing on a state of relaxation.

In the 2010s, ASMR was popularised to such an extent that there are thousands of videos available online for those looking to experience it. Most often, ASMR is brought on by an audio stimulus, so it’s recommended to listen with headphones to really enhance the sounds going into your ears. That’s especially true when the recordings have been made with a binaural microphone.

Other kinds of triggers are visual, like hand movements, or tactile, like light touches against the skin.

Are you saying it took us until the 21st century to discover such sensations?

Well, in reality the sensations have existed since forever, but it wasn’t until 2010 that anyone put a name on them. Jennifer Allen, herself an ASMR content creator, coined the scientific-sounding acronym on a Facebook group and it caught on. Allen has since explained she wanted the term to come across as clinical, so people could talk about it openly without fear of being ridiculed. There’s almost no science on ASMR.

Since then, this digital-age relaxation method has become a true sensation. Each month, there are over 11 million searches for ASMR on Youtube, and the most viewed videos have tens of millions of plays. The influencers posting these are known as ASMRtists and they have to regularly come up with new ideas to keep their content fresh.

What are the most common ASMR triggers? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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It might seem like a random series of letters and numbers, but bear with us and you’ll soon understand. VOC202012/01 is the name of the so-called UK coronavirus variant, one of several which are causing concern at the moment. Since first being detected in South-East England, it has started spreading all across the world.

How far back does this strain actually date?

In mid-December, London mayor Sadiq Kahn warned people to expect the “toughest Christmas” since the Second World War, after it was announced the city would face Tier 4 covid-19 restrictions. That decision was taken due to the rising infection rates caused by the new virus strain. According to Nick Loman, professor of microbial genomics and bioinformation at the University of Birmingham, this variant was first identified in the United Kingdom in late September 2020.

The strain was originally known as VUI 202012/01, the VUI standing for variant under investigation. But it was then renamed as a VOC, or variant of concern, in December.

So what are the differences between this variant and the original coronavirus? Are you saying this strain is more dangerous then? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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On January 15th 2021, Wikipedia turned 20 years old, believe it or not.

Wow, thanks for making me feel old!

OK so everybody already knows what Wikipedia is, but let’s look closer at its history, how it works and the limits of this collaborative, volunteer-produced internet encyclopedia.

Nowadays, Wikipedia has over 55 million articles in over 300 different languages. But everything started with a single post titled Hello World, published by American founder Jimmy Wales. He invited internet users to join his encyclopedia project with the radical aim of changing how knowledge was created and shared online.

That’s a pretty ambitious objective!

The main novelty was allowing anyone to contribute and edit the encyclopedia’s articles, regardless of education or social origin. So with Wikipedia, knowledge on a subject isn’t produced according to some kind of hierarchy whereby a minority of experts have all the control. Instead we place trust in collective intelligence.

Editors, also known as Wikipedians, combine their efforts on a voluntary basis, to help the collaborative community to exist, with no director.

Can the information really be considered reliable if anyone can contribute?

Interestingly, the sheer number of contributors is seen as a guarantee of Wikipedia’s reliability, even if they work on a voluntary basis. The more editors there are, the greater the number of peer reviews and edits which can be made to reach the general consensus on any given subject.

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Since the start of the year, a previously little known social network has been making international headlines. Despite having just 1 million users in July 2020, Parler was the most downloaded app on the US App Store in November, right after the Presidential election. By then, it had reached 10 million users, a figure which rose to 15 million by January 2021. Parler’s user base mainly consists of conservatives, Donald Trump supporters, right-wing extremists and conspiracy theorists.

How did Parler become such a big deal?

Parler was actually founded in 2018, positioning itself as an unbiased alternative to mainstream social networks. It takes its name from the French word parler, meaning “to speak”. Parler has officially described itself as “free speech social media focused on protecting users’ rights.”

Like any other social network, Parler has a web browser version, as well as apps for mobile devices. Users just need an email address and telephone number to register, as well as meeting the minimum age requirement of 13. Unlike on Twitter, users must have an account before viewing posts.

Despite its explosion in users, Parler has been offline since January 11th, when Amazon decided to suspend the site from its web hosting service. Google and Apple also removed Parler from their app stores, making the platform totally unavailable.

That’s quite some rise and fall! Why was Parler taken offline then? What is the current outlook for Parler? Will it come back online? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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What is Signal?
What is bardcore?
What is compersion?

A podcast written and realised by Joseph Chance.

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