Do you really know?

We’re experiencing more intense and frequent heatwaves than ever before, and it’s one of the most tangible effects of climate change. These summer periods of extreme heat are a threat to the elderly, children and the poor. To meet the World Meteorological Organization’s definition of a heatwave, the period must last 5 days or longer. The daily maximum temperature must also be at least 5° higher than the average maximum temperature. This means the requirements can vary by region. Some nations have their own definition of a heatwave. For example, the UK’s Met Office uses a system called Heat Health Watch. To determine whether a heatwave is occurring, the maximum daytime temperature and minimum nighttime temperature are compared to regional thresholds. A four-level system is used to score each Local Authority area, with Level 4 being the highest.

So what actually causes a heatwave then?

Scientifically speaking, heatwaves are the result of trapped air. High-pressure systems force the air downwards, forming a cap over an affected area. This prevents precipitation from forming, leading to a continual buildup of heat. In the Northern Hemisphere, this happens most often in July and August, even if we have now started seeing heatwaves earlier in the year. The problem is that heatwaves have a number of consequences. First of all, think of the environmental impact. They lead to shortages of drinking water, destroy food-producing crops, increase pollution and the risk of forest fires. But there are also direct human health issues. Extreme heat wears out those who are most vulnerable, like the elderly, children or the sick. It can make existing illnesses worse or cause serious heatstrokes.

What are the guidelines? Who has the greater risks? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Being overweight is a stigma. While around 13% of the world’s population are obese, they are largely absent from the public limelight and often find themselves the target of mockery or discrimination. Overweight people are humiliated and ostracised throughout their lives, having to put up with regular criticisms about their lifestyle and appearance. This is what’s known as fatphobia, a form of discrimination which can have a harmful effect on those on the receiving end. Fatphobia is often left out of discussions on the struggle against different forms of discrimination. But it nevertheless causes real suffering on a daily basis. It can manifest itself in many different forms. For example assuming that obese people make bad life choices, ranking people according to their weight or claiming they are responsible for how they are. Fatphobia victims often end up believing they have no worth because it’s the message that’s transmitted to them constantly. Putting themselves down in turn affects their self-esteem and quality of life. Sometimes, they isolate from the rest of society or take on unhealthy habits.

But why are overweight people rejected to such an extent?

Modern Western society has led us to believe that a person’s weight and figure play a major part in how attractive they are. Being obese is therefore equated with ugliness, inferiority and even immorality. Fatphobia has become integrated into the general way of thinking for most people. Even those who aren’t overweight obsess about not putting on extra pounds before the summer holiday season. Online algorithms also seem to now be pre-programmed with fatphobia! A number of plus size influencers have noticed that their posts are censored by social media platforms. This is an example of a phenomenon known as shadow banning. American singer Lizzo accused TikTok of banning clips of her in a bikini, when similar clips of other slimmer women were allowed to remain online. This…

When you think “adventure”, you most likely think of an exotic destination halfway across the globe. But it’s easy to have an exciting change of scenery close to home, without compromising your carbon footprint. Let’s talk about micro adventures. Micro adventures are generally short, spontaneous and local. They take place outdoors and don’t require a high budget. If there’s one intrinsic rule to the concept, it’s that there are no fixed rules. Covid-19 lockdown measures and travel restrictions have revived the micro adventure concept. It’s a personal and inventive way of experiencing unique moments at walking or cycling distance from where you live.

How can we explain the rise of the micro advendures?

British adventurer and author Alastair Humphreys was responsible for the rise of the microadventure. The idea is based on a simple principle: within a few miles of your home, there must be some scope for adventure which can be reached through an original means of transport. You just need to change your existing habits. Switch your car or travelcard for a kayak, bike or simply a pair of trainers. Whatever you need to leave home and start your microadventure. With the virus still spreading and a major economic crisis likely to last for some time, there is fair cause for concern about the near future. All the same, after months of Netflix, online yoga classes and homemade bread, you’re no doubt keen to make the most of summer. And a micro adventure could be just the ticket, without needing to travel far, spend a lot of money or make complicated arrangements.

What about those of us who struggle to come up with ideas for a microadventure? Is there a risk that the micro adventure could turn into a form of mass tourism? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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For many people, beaches are synonymous with the summer holiday season. Beach holidays have been popular since the second half of the 19th century, and are the archetypal form of mass tourism. With millions of people indulging in such getaways each year, it goes without saying that there’s a significant environmental impact. We regularly get riled when seeing pictures of beaches covered in plastic bottles, or turtles choking on straws. Around 10 million tonnes of waste end up in the ocean each year, with tourism hotspots creating 26% more than other cities. Plastic from bags, packaging and straws are a nuisance and threat to sea animals. Even our swimsuits are made from plastic-based materials like nylon, polyester and spandex. and shed microfibres into the ocean, which can be swallowed by sea animals. Cigarette butts also contain plastic, as well as highly toxic chemical components like nicotine, acetone and benzopyrene. A single butt can contaminate 500 litres of water and can take up to 10 years to decompose. They have long been the most collected waste item on the world’s beaches. Some regions use large sand-cleaning machines to clear waste, but these also have a detrimental effect on certain types of flora and fauna on the beach.

Are you saying my new eco-friendly lifestyle isn’t compatible with a beach holiday?

A beach holiday can still be compatible with a beach holiday, but only if you pay close attention to a few factors. To simplify things, you can see whether the beach carries the Blue Flag eco-label, which rewards resorts for meeting certain criteria. For example, a beach must have good quality water, be accessible and offer waste sorting. There should also be educational material on display for visitors to learn about environmental issues. There are over 4,000 Blue Flag beaches and marinas across the world. But even choosing a Blue Flag beach doesn’t guarantee you won’t damage the environment. Someth…

Blackface is a form of theatre which consists of non-black performers wearing make-up to represent black characters. These depictions were often based on racial stereotypes and caricatures, with exaggerated physical features used to ridicule black people. This form of entertainment rose to popularity in 19th century America. It also became prominent in the UK. Blackface was most common in minstrel shows, which were a medley of singing, dancing, music and comedy scenes. Performers tended to be white, and used greasepaint or shoe polish to make their skin appear darker. The trend gradually disappeared in the second half of the 20th century, being recognised as offensive and racist. But it has come under the spotlight again recently. This is largely due to the Black Lives Matter movement and focus on racial inequality issues, following the death of George Floyd in May.

If blackface disappeared years ago, why is it still relevant today?

While minstrel shows are thankfully consigned to the past, there have still been many recent instances of white actors portraying black characters in popular culture. The latest rise in collective awareness has led to scenes and entire episodes with blackface depictions being removed from well-known shows. Some examples include The Office, 30 Rock and Scrubs. A number of public figures have had to issue public apologies after past images of them in blackface surfacing. This isn’t just limited to the entertainment industry; even Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau was found to have worn blackface makeup on multiple occasions for high school talent shows.

But isn’t removing blackface episodes just an easy way out? What are the alternative options then? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Social network Tiktok allows users to publish short-form mobile videos. It’s been downloaded over 2 billion times since it was created in 2016, and its influence is growing bigger and bigger. That’s especially true within the music industry. There have been numerous success stories of new artists emerging on TikTok to become internet celebrities. The app has a reputation for being popular with members of Gen Z around the world. And the stats back it up; 70% of users are under the age of 25. With light-hearted features like comedy clips, dance choreographies and lip-syncing, it’s mostly seen as an entertainment app. Indeed, the “OK Boomer” catchphrase first went viral thanks to a TikTok clip. Listen to our previous episode on the subject to find out more! But TikTok has become increasingly political in different ways. Some countries are even considering banning it!

It seems like harmless fun - why would anyone want to ban such an app?

Much of the controversy stems from the fact that TikTok is owned by a Chinese company; that’s Byte Dance in case you didn’t already know. Countries like India, the United States and Australia suspect TikTok of feeding user data to the Chinese government. Like many mobile apps, TikTok collects information on its users. That includes their location, smartphone model and even the rhythm at which they type. TikTok directors have denied the accusations, but not everyone is convinced. India was first to introduce a ban, a real blow as it was the company’s second largest market after China. Even if the official reasoning is to do with security concerns, there’s also no doubt some countries want to sanction China for some of its foreign policies. Many have referred to the rivalry between China and the US as a New Cold War. It’s arguably in American interest to limit the influence of Chinese tech companies. But the political aspect is not just to do with TikTok’s ownership. Users themselves have begun posti…

An ecocide is a term for an act that causes significant damage to the environment or ecosystems. It comes from the Greek word éoikios, meaning home, and the Latin word caedere, meaning kill. In theory individuals, companies and states could be brought to justice for committing such acts. It’s not recognised as a crime in many places, but France is currently looking at passing a law to do just that. The term was first used in the early 1970s in response to strategic deforestation by the American military in Vietnam, carried out with a herbicide called Agent Orange. This was used as a chemical weapon to destroy the forest cover and food resources relied on by Vietnamese guerilla fighters.

So what’s caused the French to consider making ecocide a crime?

A group of randomly selected French citizens was set up by President Emmanuel Macron in 2019, following regular protests by the gilets jaunes movement. The panel was named the Citizens’ Convention on Climate. Macron said: “We do not include our fellow citizens sufficiently in the transparent, debated construction of the solutions we put forward. So that is the idea behind the Citizens’ Assembly process.” The CCC has been set the task of defining actions to tackle climate change, with the aim of reducing emissions by 40% within the next decade. The ecocide law is one of the group’s key proposals, along with a ban on advertising high carbon footprint products and a tax hike on processed foods. The French Minister for Ecological Transition was first to back the idea of a referendum on the issue. Then President Macron himself announced in late June he would back the law. A referendum could be held as early as next year.

Exciting times for environmentalists! What’s going on elsewhere then? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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IQ stands for intelligence quotient and is a test score which indicates a person’s level of intelligence. Some people are concerned that the average IQ is decreasing in Europe. The abbreviation IQ was coined by German psychologist William Stern in 1912, to name a scoring method for intelligence testing at the University of Breslau. Even before that, humans had long been fascinated with classifying people according to their intelligence. Psychologists still use IQ scores today. The most common form of testing is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). The average is set at 100. Half of all people have a score between 90 and 110; 15% score from 110 to 120; and around 3% have a ‘gifted-level’ IQ of over 130.

So, if I got 132, am I brainiac?

Now I’m not saying you’re not smart, but your result from GetMyIQIn5Minutes.com might not be the most...reliable. To find out your IQ, you need to consult a psychologist and carry out dozens of exercises to measure cognitive skills like short-term memory, problem solving and visual processing. The whole process takes several hours and it’s not even a given that the psychologist will agree to give you your score. Many parents insist on IQ tests in the hope of discovering that children are gifted, or have high academic potential. In the worst cases, IQ tests are used to pigeonhole children; stupid on one side and gifted on the other. An IQ score alone doesn’t tell the whole story, and can lead to stigmatisation, rather than having any positive effect. Furthermore, IQ doesn’t give any information on emotional or relational intelligence. That’s why some psychologists now refuse to give out results. Nevertheless, it remains a very common indicator.

So what evidence is there that IQ levels are dropping? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Fintech is an abbreviation of “financial technology” It’s a new business sector which began developing during the 2010s. Fintech companies put technology to the service of financial activity. Finance can now be handled from the palm of our hands. If we forget about the tech part for a minute, we’re talking about the finance sector of traditional banking. Due to their large structures, these companies are somewhat slow to integrate new technologies into their business practices. That’s how new players, with more digital knowhow and innovation, have been able to challenge traditional finance. 2015 was a key year for fintech, with 47 billion dollars invested.

When I think finance, I think billions of digits and transactions between New York traders. With or without technology, what’s it got to do with my daily life?

Well, we all handle a little bit of finance every day, whether saving up to go on holiday or getting a third pint for your mate who never pays you back. That’s changed since everybody started having a smartphone on them all the time. Fintech allows us to make instant transfers between friends, pay at checkout using our phone and view bank account statements in real time.

What about crowdfunding and cryptocurrencies? Do they have anything to do with fintech? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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GAFAM is the acronym used to refer to American tech giants Google, Apple, Facebook, Amazon and Microsoft. Together, they hold five of the six top spots in a listing of the world’s most valuable public corporations. And their products are omnipresent in our daily lives.

So why group these five companies together then?

Well, they are the most powerful players in the digital economy. Since Apple became the first American company to pass a value of $1 trillion in 2018, they have been followed by Amazon, Microsoft and Google’s parent company Alphabet. Facebook is a little way behind, but it has a global user base of 3 billion people which no other company can match.These five companies preside over most of our online activity. When you’re emailing, watching, calling, posting or buying, chances are you’re using a product from one of the GAFAM companies to do so.

What’s not to like about our digital overlords then? And what about tax avoidance? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Stigmergy is a model of coordination and cooperation which was first observed in social insects, but also appears in human behaviour. It is appealing more and more to project leaders as a kind of open network organisation. Ants communicate by laying pheromones along their path, so that other ants can follow them to food or their colony as needed. This constitutes a system called stigmergy. Similar phenomena are noticed in other species of social insects like termites, which use pheromones to construct large and complex mounds by following a simple decentralized rule. Without communicating directly with one another, they are able to create the appearance of joint decision-making.

How the term "stigmergy" was born?

The term was coined by French biologist Pierre-Paul Grassé in 1959, referring specifically to behaviour of termites. He defined it as: “Stimulation of workers by the project they are implementing”. The term comes from the Greek words stigma, meaning “mark” or “sign” and ergon, meaning “work” or “action”. It expresses the notion that the actions of an agent leave traces in the environment, signs which are then read by himself and other agents, and which determine their further actions. Under the stigmergy model, individuals communicate among themselves, modifying their environment by means of indirect communication. Their communication is transparent, without any imposed rules. A well-known example is Wikipedia. A person starts writing an article and publishes it. Another user may follow, see if the article needs improvement and make edits if they have further knowledge of the subject area.

How does that translate into implementation of a project, for example? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Ghosting is a modern slang term for ceasing all communication without any warning or explanation. It’s likely happened to you in the past at some point, and you may well have also ghosted someone yourself! The term was first added to dating jargon in the 2000s, and has become more common with the rise of social media, online dating and casual hookup services. A survey by Elle.com found that half of all men and women had ghosted someone at least once in the past. Meanwhile, only 23% of women and 36% of men had never experienced ghosting in any capacity, either as the ghost or the ghostee. Ghosting can happen in pretty much any kind of relationship, including with family members or as part of a recruitment process. But it’s most commonly talked about with regards to dating. We’re not talking about ignoring someone after one disappointing date, but rather after several dates, or even in the context of an apparently exclusive relationship. All of a sudden, the ghost stops responding. They ignore calls, texts, Whatsapp messages and any other form of communication. As if the ghostee didn't exist!

Seems pretty cruel and cowardly! Why do people ghost then?

Some mental health professionals view ghosting as a form of emotional cruelty. At best, it confuses the ghostee and at worst it causes them severe distress, which can have a lasting impact on self-esteem. Ghosting comes across as an especially inelegant kind of behaviour, even if the intention isn’t necessarily to hurt the ghostee. It’s been argued that ghosting results from a general decrease in empathy towards relationship partners. Cynics say this is typical of the digital era culture, with selfishness and narcissism all too common. Before getting too judgemental, let’s also recognise that ending a relationship can be uncomfortable at the best of times. You could say that ghosting is the easy way out, and some people certainly do it to avoid conflict.

Are there any other altern…

Vitamin D was discovered in 1922 by American biochemist Elmer McCollum, who was nicknamed Dr Vitamin by Time Magazine. He found that cod liver oil could still prevent rickets in rats, despite its vitamin A having been removed. From this observation, he deduced that it contained a different substance which he called vitamin D.

Why vitamin D is necessary?

A sufficient quantity of vitamin D is necessary during early childhood years in order to prevent rickets. In adults, it protects against osteoporosis and the deterioration of bone tissue. It also plays an important part in preventing breast cancer and colon cancer. Vitamin D deficiency increases the risk of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. According to a study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, over 1 billion people worldwide are vitamin D deficient. In May 2020, an American study suggested that vitamin D deficiency could increase the risks of complications associated with Covid-19. This was based on data from countries severely affected by COVID-19, like China, France, Germany, Italy and the United States. According to a Dutch study, another vitamin may give you an advantage in fighting the virus, and that's vitamin K. Covid-19 causes coagulation of blood and degrades elastic pulmonary fibres. Whereas vitamin K consumed with food participates in the production of proteins which regulate coagulation.

How do we produce or find Vitamin D then? But how does sunblock work then? What about skin colour; does that impact our ability to produce Vitamin D? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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American psychiatrist Dr Raymond Moody is considered to be the founding father of studies on near-death experiences, known as NDEs for short. Back in 1975, he was the first to shed light on the phenomenon in his book “Life after life”. In 1991 Dr Moody claimed to have had a near-death experience himself, after attempting suicide. According to him, that provided him with a deeper insight into his work and himself. He claims that “a man who has been a patient himself becomes a better doctor”.

When does the near death experience come?

Near death experiences are triggered by singular life-threatening episodes when the body is injured as a result of a concussion, a heart attack, asphyxia or a shock, for example. Between 6 and 20% of people who have suffered a coma or a cardiac arrest claim to have lived through a near-death experience. Thanks to improved reanimation techniques, more and more survivors are able to give an account of their extraordinary journey that took place in the first instants of dying.These stories often describe leaving the damaged body behind and visiting a realm beyond our day-to-day life, unrestrained by space or time. Such powerful experiences of mystical nature transform the lives of survivors forever.

So what exactly is a near death experience like? What does science have to say on the matter? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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The more bad news we hear, the more we tend to get consumed by social media feeds, incessantly scrolling through our apps. Americans have come up with a term for that phenomenon: doomscrolling. Spoiler alert: it’s not the best for your mental health. If you use Twitter, Instagram or Facebook, you definitely know the feeling. You open the app and start scrolling through your feed on autopilot mode, sinking deeper and deeper into the infinity of posts. In the context of an unnerving situation covered by countless posts, it becomes virtually impossible to put your phone away. To describe this phenomenon, the term “doomscrolling” was coined on Twitter in 2018.

So why do we doomscroll then?

In times of crisis, we feel the need to make some sense out of the world around us. This could be due to current events like the Covid19 pandemic and worldwide antiracism protests. Other scenarios include terrorist attacks and climate change. In order to get information, we turn to the media, which in this day and age often means social media in particular. The problem with social media is that we don't get to pre-select the info we see. It’s impossible for our brain to organize it to create a coherent story. In addition to the fact that the algorithms trap us in a bad news bubble, they force us to stay connected. Lastly, the final trap lies in the endless scrolling. Whereas a newspaper, magazine or TV newscast have a pre-defined end, our social media feeds can simply go on forever! The “mean world syndrome” first described in the 70s implies that, exposed to violent content on TV, we tend to perceive the world as a more dangerous place than it actually is. The same happens when it comes to doomscrolling: the outside world becomes hostile, which can trigger a certain amount of anxiety or worse - depression. Which is why from the very beginning of self-isolation therapists have been warning us against spending too much time checking news fe…

Relations between China and the United States have been deteriorating for years, and the global COVID-19 pandemic isn’t helping. Each country blames the other for the situation and do not hesitate to brandish threats. Some analysts believe a new cold war is upon us.

The original Cold War was a period of confrontation between the US and the USSR, between 1947 and 1991. It was marked by the ideological rivalry of communism versus capitalism, each seeking to exert as much global influence as possible. However, the two countries never confronted each other directly, hence the war is referred to as “cold”.

Today the term “the new cold war” is often used by experts, editorialists and even political figures. Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi, for instance, has suggested that Washington’s attacks pushed China towards a new cold war.

Indeed, China and the US are in a geopolitical conflict over issues like Taiwan, Hong Kong and the South China Sea. China is seeking to assert its power; it enjoys a substantial presence in Africa and aims to consolidate its maritime position with the help of the New Silk Road project.

Another part of the battle is fought online by hackers looking to access sensitive information. The countries have been at loggerheads for years over allegations of the Chinese government stealing trade secrets from American companies, like Google, Microsoft and Intel.

China and the United States are fighting a trade war, too. Americans had introduced punitive customs duties which remained in force until the two countries reached a new agreement in January 2020.

But with Covid19 in the picture, tensions have escalated even further. The United States recently withdrew from the World Health Organisation, accusing the agency of supporting China.

The US also recently made a formal accusation that China was funding and operating cells of hackers to infiltrate COVID-19 research labs.

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Chlordecone is a highly toxic pesticide which is known for being an endocrine disruptor. That means it can interfere with hormones and cause disease. It has been described by the World Health Organization as “potentially carcinogenic” and causes liver tumours in lab mice. Although it’s been banned for nearly three decades, it’s still causing controversy in the 21st century. Its prior use led to the poisoning of almost the entire adult population of Martinique and Guadeloupe in the French Caribbean. Many are calling on the French government to take responsibility for this chronic pollution problem.

How this polemic begins?

Thousands of tonnes of bananas are produced each year in Martinique and Guadeloupe. The banana sector is key to the economy, employing over half of agricultural workers across the two islands. Most of the produce is exported to, and sold in, mainland France. In the early 1970s, plantations were affected by root-boring weevils which attacked the banana plants. So it seemed like good news when it was discovered that chlordecone could be used to eradicate the insects. The farmers likely had no idea how dangerous chlordecone was, but the government really should have known better. Studies on chickens and mice in the 1960s had already proved chlordecone to be poisonous.

So is everything OK now, 30 years later? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Influencers are people who are capable of impacting consumption habits among their followers on social media. Brands are relying more and more on influencers as part of their communications strategies, but are sometimes duped by fake influencers. You could be forgiven for thinking influencers were invented in the 2010s. In reality, it stems from a theory discussed by sociologists for decades. Until the past decade, we talked about “opinion leadership”, meaning people who had influence on their family, friends or colleagues. This could be giving an opinion on products, brands or celebrities, for example.

How does the opinion leadership manifest itself?

In the internet age, opinion leadership manifested itself in the form of bloggers. These were generally amateurs who used their websites to share their opinion online, whether it be on a particular niche or wide-ranging subjects. Gradually bloggers ceded their position to influencers on social media, mainly Youtube and Instagram. Influencers tend to be specialised in a certain area of interest, like beauty, fashion, travel, cooking, culture or sports. Indeed, being an influencer has become a career for many in recent years. Brands quickly realised they would need to work together with these opinion leaders, in order to reach certain communities. They spoil their influencers with gifts, trips and VIP event invitations. A study by social media analytics platform Klear found that companies pay nano-influencers an average of $100 for an Instagram post, with that figure rising to $2000 for a celebrity.

In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Brand activism is when companies seek to have an impact on a social, economic, environmental, or political problem. It’s increasingly common, especially at the moment, but it can have negative consequences. In many cases, companies are called out for being hypocritical when engaging in brand activism. Cynics often see it as opportunistic marketing. Even worse, the company may in fact have a poor track record when it comes to the issue on which they are taking a stance.

Why do brands feel like they need to get political then?

There are a number of reasons why brands feel like they need to get political. Companies might engage relating to an issue that aligns with their values and vision, for the good publicity it generates or simply to boost their bottom line. Consumers, especially from younger generations, are becoming more and more demanding when it comes to brand activism. This is backed up by studies which show that millennials and members of Gen-Z are likely to choose products from a brand which aligns with their values. Recent weeks have seen a massive increase in brand activism relating to the Black Lives Matter movement against racial violence and injustice. This follows the high-profile killing of black man George Floyd at the hands of the Minneapolis police in late May. Staying silent on racial inequality is no longer an option for brands, with the risk of them being seen as complicit. Companies have been posting powerful messages on social media, announcing seven-figure donations to racial equality charities and making pledges to increase diversity within their own organisations. Adidas has pledged that 30% of its future hires in the USA will be people from black or Latino backgrounds. Amazon has been displaying the Black Lives Matter logo prominently on all its social media platforms, while its CEO shared racist emails he had received from members of the public. Uber Eats announced it would waive delivery fee…

Despite what it might sound like, free software isn’t necessarily free of charge. Here, the word is used with regards to liberty, not price. That’s also why it’s sometimes referred to as “libre software”, to avoid any ambiguity. Perhaps more significant than its definition is what free software stands for. It’s a social and political movement which aims to offer software with no trade secrets, and guaranteed free circulation of source code. Some of the most well-known free software applications are the Firefox web browser, OpenOffice and VLC media player. Examples of non-free programs, also described as proprietary software, are Photoshop, iTunes or Microsoft Windows.

So what sets free software apart from the rest then?

The Free Software Movement was started in the 1980s by former hacker Richard Stallman. Many manufacturers had recently stopped distributing source code and started using restrictive licenses or copyright. This was to prevent competitors from using their software and it became the norm. Stallman announced the GNU project, which consisted of developing a free computer operating system by the same name. The GNU Manifesto set out four essential freedoms that software must have in order to be considered free. Users have to be able to 1) run the program as they wish, for whatever use they wish; 2) study the programme’s source code, and edit it; 3) share exact copies with others; and finally 4) make and distribute edited versions to others.

Is it the same as open source? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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The assumed superiority of humans over all other animals is often unspoken. Without necessarily wishing any harm on animals, we take it for granted that we are more complex beings and therefore have greater moral rights. So much so that most of us are not even aware of the concept of speciesism, which is an increasingly complex ethical issue. Speciesism refers to discrimination based on species membership, and is usually used to describe the assumption of human superiority. In the worst cases, it leads to the exploitation of animals. Some people condemn it as a massive form of bigotry, just like racism or sexism.

When did we start talking about speciesism then?

The term first appeared around 50 years ago, in a pamphlet written by British psychologist Richard D. Ryder. Ryder was a member of the Oxford Group of intellectuals, who met frequently to discuss animal rights, at the time an emerging concept. But the idea itself has existed for a long time. Aristotle talked about the dominance of men over animals in his work The History of Animals, which is seen as a pioneering work in the field of zoology. Abrahamic religions like Christianity and Judaism have also contributed to spreading speciesism by teaching that animals were created for use by humans. French philosopher René Descartes introduced the animal-machine notion in the 17th century, which had great influence on Western cultures. He argued that animals acted on instinct alone and had no emotions. Meanwhile, humans had a conscience and could think for themselves. According to Descartes, this moral distinction meant humans deserved more rights than animals. This attitude is still widely held in modern society. at least to some extent. If you think about the example of a human child and a dog caught in a fire, most people wouldn’t hesitate in saving the child first.

Well that’s true, but it’s a bit of an extreme case, isn’t it? In under 3 minutes, we answer your question…

While the Space Race makes us think back to the 20th century, some billionaires are dreaming of ruling space in 2020. In particular Elon Musk, the CEO of Tesla, who’s planning to send tens of thousands of satellites into orbit in coming years. The name of the project is Starlink and the goal is to deliver high-speed broadband access across the globe. Behind Starlink is the private company SpaceX, which Elon Musk founded in 2002. Earlier this year, it became the first private company to send astronauts into space. Musk has long held the ambition of colonizing the planet Mars, which remains a future objective for SpaceX. Since 2015, the company has been developing the Starlink megaconstellation of satellites. The stated aim is bold: providing high-speed internet access anywhere on earth. We’re talking at sea, in the middle of the desert or the depths of the countryside.

Doesn’t satellite internet access already exist?

Existing satellites giving internet access are in geostationary orbit and the technology only allows a limited number of users to access it. Latency times are also high, due to the 20,000 mile distance between the satellites and us on Earth. Starlink, on the other hand, sends satellites into Low Earth orbit at 550 miles. Latency will be reduced, and as the satellites will orbit more quickly, they will be able to cover the whole of the planet. Starlink has been authorised to send 12,000 satellites into space. To put that into perspective, Earth currently has just 2,200 artificial satellites.There are already 600 Starlink satellites orbiting, with the first launch mission dating back to February 2018. Service is set to be available in North America by the end of the year, with “near global coverage of the populated world” promised for 2021.

What about 5G? Are there environmental risks in sending all these satellites into orbit? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Many countries reported increased gender-based violence during recent coronavirus lockdowns. Femicides are the most extreme form of such crimes against women, and they have been on the rise for many years now. The term dates back centuries, but has taken on a new meaning in recent decades, with feminists placing emphasis on the specific nature and intent of femicide. It has gradually been adopted by international organisations like the United Nations and World Health Organisation.

If a man kills a woman, is it automatically a femicide then?

The murder of a woman isn’t always femicide, even if committed by a man. Femicide refers specifically to murders carried out because the victim is a woman. The WHO published an information sheet on the subject in 2012, providing details of several different types of cases. The most common is intimate femicide, which is committed by a current partner or ex partner. Worldwide, these account for 35% of all murders of women in the world. A study by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime found that 87,000 women were murdered in 2017, with 58% being killed by an intimate partner or family member. By the same logic, non-intimate femicide is when the murderer and victim do not have an intimate relationship. This includes killings linked to a sexual assault and antifeminist murders, for example. Other types of femicide include dowry-related murders and honour killings.

Are there specific laws on femicide? How the victime can get justice? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Non-binary is an umbrella term to describe people who don’t identify within the traditional gender binary of male or female. This is also known as enby for short, or genderqueer. There isn’t a whole lot of reliable data about the number of non-binary people in the world. But the general trend is gradually more people are identifying as such, bringing into question the role of gender in society.

Since when non-binary people are recognize?

The term originates from the binary system used in mathematics or electronics, where the only two options are 0 and 1. We have historically discussed our gender in the same way - we are either male or female. Those who talk about non-binary genders are opposed to this way of thinking, claiming the existence of other possibilities. Some people feel like they have more than one gender, have none at all, or are in a fluctuating state known as genderfluid. The term non-binary started being used in the 2000s and spread with the emergence of social media. That doesn’t necessarily mean non-binary people didn’t exist before. The term simply helped otherwise isolated people to recognise their identity. Several countries already legally recognise non-binary or third gender classifications. Australia may have been the first, going back to 2003. Others include New Zealand, Malta, India and most recently Canada, where gender-neutral passports were introduced in 2019. In some countries, it’s possible to change the gender marker on your ID document by simply filling in a declaration form.

Is it another word for androgynous or intersex? Which pronouns should we use when talking to a non-binary person? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Until recently, it’s been assumed that nobody had pre-existing immunity to COVID-19. Experts and world leaders such as Angela Merkel warned that the virus could go on to infect up to 70% of a country’s population, if it wasn’t eliminated. But studies are suggesting some people may already be resistant. We’ve already talked about herd immunity in a previous episode. Some countries like Sweden opted not to enforce strict lockdown measures, in the belief herd immunity would come about naturally. That scenario still seems a long way off, but scientists are looking into another kind of immunity, known as cross immunity. Basically, some of us may already be immunised against covid-19, due to past viral infections.

But Covid-19 is a new disease. How could we have already encountered it in the past?

SARS-COV-2, the strain which causes COVID-19, is a novel coronavirus. So no-one had ever been exposed to it before it appeared in late 2019. But it is just one member of the coronavirus family. Human coronaviruses were first discovered in the 1960s, so they have existed for many decades. Our bodies defeat viruses thanks to the antibodies created by our immune systems. Generally speaking, any one type of antibody is effective against a unique type of antigen. But sometimes, antibodies are able to bind to other types of antigens with similar structures. This is described as cross reactivity. Recent research looked at antibodies recovered from survivors of the SARS epidemic of the early 2000s. That was caused by SARS-CoV-1, which is closely related to the current coronavirus strain. In-vitro tests found the antibodies had a ‘robust’ cross-reactive immune response to SARS-CoV-2.

Well SARS only affected 8,000 people; what about the rest of us? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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