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In the United States, the President isn’t actually directly elected by citizens. That responsibility goes instead to the electoral college. The system means it’s actually possible for the candidate elected president to have less votes overall than their defeated opponent. Since the year 1880, Election Day has taken place on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November. Next week, Americans will go to the ballot and cast their votes in the 2020 election. As you may well recall, four years ago Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump went head-to-head. What if I told you that Clinton actually won that election?

I’d say you were living in an alternative universe!

Well, Hillary Clinton received 48% of all votes, while Donald Trump got 46%. There was an overall difference of 3 million votes between the two candidates. Don’t get carried away, Donald Trump didn’t cheat. He did win the electoral vote. But Clinton won the popular vote. It was only the fourth time that had happened in the history of the US election.

How is that even possible?! In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Humanity is faced with the complex issue of how to store and archive all the digital data it produces. Sometimes the solutions to our problems are right before our eyes. Or even in every cell in our body! Soon enough, we may end up using synthetic DNA to store our data. In the last few years, scientists have made significant progress in sequencing and synthesising DNA. We are now able to create DNA quickly, without needing to use chemistry. And this progress is leading to great hope.

But what’s the point of producing DNA?

Synthetic DNA can be used to create new medicines, produce better quality food and cruelty-free meat or leather for example. Researchers are trying to use this technology to meet a wide range of modern-day challenges. But we hear most about the promise of synthetic DNA in relation to the digital world. With the ever-expanding internet and increasing number of connected devices, there’s an endless amount of data that needs to be stored somewhere. For the moment, we rely on enormous data centres, which have to be permanently cooled, consuming billions of litres of water to do so. They’re expensive to maintain, they take up a lot of physical space and they’re really not good for the environment.

So are we going to replace massive hard drives with tubes of DNA? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Tax evasion refers to individuals, corporations, or trusts using illegal means to avoid paying tax. This could be by exploiting loopholes in the state tax system, or transferring property or business activities activity to another country with a more favourable tax regime. Meanwhile, tax avoidance, also known as tax optimisation, consists of using legitimate methods to minimise the amounts paid. Some companies and rich households do this by transferring their profits or revenues to a tax haven.

Hold on a minute - what’s a tax haven?

The OECD has been officially concerned with the matter since the 1990s. In 1998, it published an international report defining what a tax haven actually is.There are three criteria for a country to be considered as such. Firstly, a very low tax rate for companies and individuals compared to levels applied in other countries. Secondly, a lack of transparency in tax calculation. And finally, a lack of cooperation with other countries, with regards to the identities of tax declarants and the sums they declare. These fiscal laws often provide for banking secrecy, which guarantees the confidentiality of banking data, and a legal privilege which allows company owners to remain anonymous.

But why do these countries choose to have such a low tax rate? How can countries fight tax evasion then? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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A think tank is a private group of experts who conduct research and develop proposals for governments. There are many powerful think tanks all over the world, and some are criticized for a lack of transparency. Perhaps the world’s oldest think tank is the Fabian Society, which was founded in London in 1884 and is still active to this day. It wasn’t until the 1970s that think tanks started proliferating. It’s estimated that there are currently over 6,000 across the world. The idea behind think tanks is that they connect researchers and politicians. Experts propose new ideas in various fields, such as economics, the environment, IT or geopolitics. Some think tanks involve confidential meetings with decision-makers, where they discuss their ideas. Others address the general public and share their expertise by means of the media.

So in a nutshell, think tanks are groups of researchers who want to make the world a better place!

That’s one way to put it, but they are powerful researchers, mainly from Anglo-Saxon countries. Since their rise in the 1970s, think tanks have contributed to strengthening liberal economic policies of the United States and Great Britain. The group called the Project For The New American Century also influenced George W. Bush's decision to wage war in Iraq. In the US, some think tanks have become “incubators” for the elite ready to be employed by the government.

But what's the difference between a think tank and a lobby? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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The right-wing QAnon conspiracy theory alleges that the United States is run by a cabal of paedophiles who control the media and politics. The only person who can stop this cabal? President Donald J Trump of course. Critics have talked about QAnon beliefs as internet misinformation, while others have described it as a disturbing movement or even a terrorist threat. As a phenomenon, QAnon is quite recent. It first sprung up on the 4Chan online forum in 2017. A certain Mister Q presented himself as an informer who shares secret data of American intelligence agencies. His alias refers to the Q qualification required to access classified information. Since QAnon is anonymous, nobody knows who is hiding behind the 5000 messages published over the last three years. There are now thousands of QAnon groups on social media, amassing millions of followers.

And what are the main beliefs of QAnon followers?

Buckle up and hold on tight. A secret group of paedophile elites is set on world domination, at the same time organizing a child trafficking ring. Powerful figures like Hillary Clinton and Nancy Pelosi have sacrificed and eaten newborns, all the while filming the Satanist ritual. Presumably with the aim of obtaining the elixir of life. Luckily, Donald Trump was made head of the United States to become the saviour and clean up this mess. Over time, the movement has expanded to connect other conspiracy theories around historical events like 9/11 or the assassination of JFK, as well as anti-vaccine, anti-5G and anti-immigrant ideas. QAnon’s followers identify themselves as digital soldiers, waiting for the big storm which is supposed to put things back in order.

But technically, it’s just a conspiracy theory much like any other? Does Trump disavow the theory? This all seems very American, we should be safe enough over here in Europe, shouldn’t we? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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On October 1st the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention and National Foundation for Infectious Diseases launched the 2020-2021 flu vaccine campaign. According to estimates, nearly 200 million doses of vaccine will be available this season. What makes this year’s campaign special is that it’s conducted in the context of the global Covid-19 pandemic. A quick reminder: a vaccine is administered to immunise a person against a potentially serious infectious disease. In the past few weeks, calls for vaccination have become more and more persistent. Experts are concerned about the possible conjunction of influenza and Covid-19. Because yes, it is possible to get infected with both the flu and Covid-19. There are fears of a “twindemic” when flu season starts in the Northern Hemisphere. It’s seen as particularly important for certain groups of people to undergo vaccination. These include people over the age of 65, those who suffer from chronic diseases or obesity, and healthcare professionals. But some people are hesitant to get vaccinated themselves, or have their children vaccinated.

Ah yes, the famous anti-vaxxers !

Anti-vax is short for anti-vaccination. Just last year, the World Health Organisation listed it among the top ten global health threats. These people are either skeptical about vaccines or completely opposed to them. It’s not just because they don't like needles; the reasons they cite are much more complex. According to a Pew Research Center survey from September 2020, only 51% of Americans said they would definitely or probably get a COVID-19 vaccine if it was available today. That’s way down from 72% back in May. On a more global level, other research conducted across 27 countries showed that 74% would be willing to get vaccinated. China ranked highest on that list with a figure of 97%, followed by Brazil and Australia.

So are Americans the only ones who are skeptical about vaccination? But wh…

Also known as glottophobia, linguistic discrimination is a form of prejudice based on a person’s way of speaking. For example, it could consist of mocking someone for their mother tongue, accent, or the range of vocabulary they use. Victims of linguistic discrimination are judged and treated differently as soon as they open their mouths. Studies into linguistic discrimination date back to the 1980s. Researchers noted the difficulties that non-native-English speakers encountered at work in the United States. Linguistic discrimination is also seen as one of the main factors in turning down a candidate for a job. Sometimes, this form of discrimination is even more brutal. In some cases in China, ethnic minorities are forced to abandon their languages. Similar policies were carried out by colonialists in past centuries, like the British Empire in Ireland, Wales and Scotland.

But why would anyone reject people based on their accent?

An accent or dialect are an important part of a person’s identity. He sounds foreign, she sounds like she’s from the countryside, he doesn’t sound well-educated etc. Traditionally, accents heard on the TV and radio have been held in higher esteem. In the UK, 28% of people feel they have suffered discrimination due to having a regional accent. Across the Channel in France, linguistic discrimination is worst for those from the north of the country, but those with strong southern accents aren’t spared. Back in 2018, politician Jean-Luc Melenchon openly mocked a journalist from Toulouse for her southwestern accent in front of TV cameras. MP Laetitia Avia then proposed a new law recognising glottophobia as a form of discrimination, but the idea ended up being abandoned.

So if you have a strong accent, should you see a speech therapist to mask it? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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World Food Day is celebrated every year on October 16th, commemorating the date on which the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization was created in 1945. Let’s take the opportunity to talk about malnutrition. It’s the consequence of a diet which doesn’t provide a healthy amount of certain nutrients. According to the World Health Organisation, this is due to excesses, deficiencies or imbalance in a person’s energy intake. So as you may have guessed, malnutrition covers both undereating and overeating. Undernutrition leads to excessive weight loss and stunted growth. Meanwhile, eating too much can lead to people becoming overweight, obese and developing non-communicable diseases, like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and certain cancers. Malnutrition can be a direct cause of death, and it also weakens the immune system, making people more vulnerable to other illnesses. That’s why it needs to be treated quickly and efficiently. When you combine the various forms of malnutrition, it is the number one cause of poor health and death in humans.

How many people are affected?

A Global Nutrition report from this year found that one in nine people suffer from hunger and one in three are overweight or obese. Malnutrition is already a problem in every country in the world and the UN estimates it will affect a further 2 billion people by 2050. It leads to more than 9 million deaths per year. Women and young children are the worst affected. Women are victims of inequality in certain countries, and don’t always have access to the food or resources they need to have a healthy diet. Children have more fragile immune systems and are therefore more vulnerable.

So social inequality and poverty are among the causes of malnutrition. What are the others then? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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What if it turned out LSD was more than just a hippy drug for those looking to go on a psychedelic trip? Researchers are convinced that microdosing, that is to say taking tiny quantities of LSD, could have a positive effect on productivity, pain and even depression. Let’s go back to 1930s Switzerland. Chemist Albert Hofmann is tearing his hair out, tasked with finding a new treatment to regulate blood pressure. LSD, or lysergic acid diethylamide, to give it its full name, was his 25th attempt, which is why it is known as LSD-25. It didn’t yield results immediately, but five years later Hofmann renewed his interest in the substance. He became the first person to ingest LSD, taking 250mg and experiencing an acid trip. So before hippies adopted LSD in the 60s, it was born in a lab. Many doctors, especially psychiatrists, sought to find therapeutic uses for it. But the war on drugs of the 1970s, and its prohibition policies, put a stop to that. Half a century later, Silicon Valley is bringing the substance back to centre stage.

Yoohoo, psychedelic algorithms coming up!

Well that’s not really the idea. Tech workers who talk up the benefits of microdosing only ingest a tenth or even less of a standard LSD dose, in order to improve their brain performance and overcome stress or tiredness. There’s no psychedelic trip, and it works with magic mushrooms too.

So once the drug of choice for hippies, LSD is now in the hands of capitalists! Is there any scientific basis behind all this? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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With the Covid-19 pandemic putting a halt to long-haul travel, sightseers have found a new way to get their flying fix. Airlines are organising “flights to nowhere”, which take off from an airport, fly around for several hours taking in scenic views, and then land back at their original point of departure.

Great, I’ve been waiting months to take a flight. Where do I sign up?

For the moment, the phenomenon has been more or less limited to Asia and Australia. Back on August 8th, Taiwanese airline EVA operated a special flight to nowhere with 309 passengers aboard. To honour the event, which took place on Father’s Day in Taiwan, they used one of their Hello Kitty decorated A330 aircraft. In Japan, All Nippon Airways treated customers to a Hawaiian experience on board its “giant sea turtle” A380 which usually flies to Honolulu. Passengers were served with pineapple juice and cocktails, while ground staff wore Hawaiian shirts. Meanwhile, Qantas made headlines a few weeks ago after apparently selling out a flight to nowhere in just 10 minutes. Tickets for the seven-hour flight from Sydney Domestic Airport went for $787 Australian dollars in economy class, $1787 in premium economy and $3787 in business class.

Wow, it seems like flights to nowhere are the latest travel trend! But how about the environmental impact? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Public discussion around the issue of consent has been greatly increased in recent years, thanks to the MeToo movement, and the resulting Harvey Weinstein trial. So when can we consider that a woman or a man has actually consented to having sex?

It’s often blurry isn’t it? When there are lots of signs that make you think you have consent, how are you supposed to know if you actually don’t?

Whenever that question comes up, I like to share this little analogy. Imagine you offer someone a cup of tea and they first of all say “Yes please”. However, when the tea is then ready, they may decide they don’t actually want it. OK, it’s a little annoying because you went to the effort of preparing the tea, but that’s not a good reason to force them to drink it. They may have thought they wanted it, but they don’t want it anymore. People can change their minds from one moment to the next, even in the short time it takes for a kettle to boil. And importantly, they are perfectly within their rights to do so. Sex isn’t really worth having if you’re not in the mood for it or don’t take pleasure. Even if a person is a drunk, or they’ve said yes and then changed their mind, or it’s with their regular partner, nothing justifies forcing someone into a sexual act without consent. And if a person withdraws their consent at any point during sexual activity, you must stop immediately. So make sure to get consent verbally and by checking your partner’s body language, so you are sure they are participating freely and willingly.

So when do we consider that a rape has been committed? Are there situations in which people are not able to consent? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Following the death of Ruth Bader Ginsburg in September 2020, Donald Trump made clear his desire to quickly appoint a new justice to the US Supreme Court. To understand the importance of this nomination, it’s important to consider the major political influence of the Supreme Court justices. The Supreme Court was created in 1789, thirteen years after the United States Declaration of Independence. It’s made up of nine justices, each of whom has a lifetime tenure. Talking about the institution in 1907, New York state governor Charles Evan Hughes said: “We are under a Constitution, but the Constitution is what the judges say it is, and the judiciary is the safeguard of our liberty and of our property under the Constitution.”

So are you saying the Supreme Court calls the shots in the US?

Not exactly, but that’s not a million miles away from the reality. It is the highest court in the US federal judiciary. There’s no real equivalent in Europe, as the Supreme Court both rules on litigation between federal states, and enforces the law on a national level. The Supreme Court is the protector of the constitution, interpreting it and ensuring its application. Furthermore, Supreme Court decisions are irrevocable, meaning no-one can question its authority.

What about the judges? Do they have significant power? What happens now that justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg has died? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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The term gaslighting refers to psychological abuse where victims are presented with false information by one or more manipulators. This is done deliberately to make them doubt their own memories and perceptions. The term originally comes from a 1930s play called Gaslight by Patrick Hamilton. The film adaptation, a 1944 psychological, thriller depicts a toxic relationship between a married couple. The husband, Gregory, becomes more and more distant from his wife Paula. He slowly manipulates her into thinking that she is going insane, to such an extent that she should be locked up in a psychiatric facility.

OK, we’re talking about serious abuse then!

Without always resulting in such extreme situations, gaslighting is nevertheless a form of abusive behaviour. The aim is often to make the victim start thinking: “Am I going crazy?!” It could apply in many situations. Politicians and dictators are often accused of gaslighting, for example. But the term is most often used to talk about manipulation in romantic relationships. It helps give a name to certain forms of behaviour that are common in toxic relationships.

How can I know if I’m being gaslighted? What should gaslighting victims do? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Just over a week ago, clashes re-erupted in the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region between Azerbaijan and Armenia. The region is to the north of Iran, and east of Armenia. It has a population of around 150,000 according to a 2015 census. Nagorno-Karabakh is an ethnic enclave, mainly inhabited by Christian Armenians, while Azerbaijan is a Turkish-speaking country with a Shiite majority. In 1991, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the territory declared itself independent.

Why has the conflict picked up again now?

Azerbaijan and Armenia have disputed the region for several decades now. There have been long periods of ceasefire and stability, but also renewed border clashes. Last week, Azerbaijani troops entered Nagorno-Karabakh territory. The country’s minister for defense justified the move as a counter-attack, with the aim of ending Armenian military activities. Armenia, who provide military and financial backing to the Nagorno-Karabakh separatists, immediately mobilised its armed forces and declared martial law. Two days later, Armenia announced that Turkey had tried to shoot down one of its military aircraft, a claim denied by Turkey and Azerbaijan. A Turkish government spokesperson said: “Armenia should withdraw from the territories it is occupying, rather than resorting to this low form of propaganda.” Turkey has always been Azerbaijan’s number one ally in the conflict. And once again the country has announced its intention to help Azerbaijan “recover its occupied territories”. Since 1993, the border between Turkey and Armenia has been closed.

OK, so clashes between Azerbaijan and Armenia are nothing new! What has the international reaction been? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Peyronie’s Disease is a disorder caused when fibrous scar tissue develops inside the penis. It can result in the member becoming curved when erect. While most men with the condition can still have sex, for some it may be painful and erectile dysfunction is a symptom. The disorder isn’t contagious, but does transform the anatomy of the penis and can reduce a man’s sexual options, even making it impossible to have sex in the most extreme cases.

How does one get Peyronie’s Disease?

The exact causes behind the condition aren’t known for sure, but researchers have identified several possible factors. Many believe trauma to the penis can cause the plaque to form. This could be during sex, or due to an accident. In the case of repeated mild trauma, the patient may not even notice or remember any specific incident. Genetics may have a role to play when Peyronie’s Disease comes on over time, but there’s no definitive evidence to back this up.

Are some men more at risk than others then? What treatment options are available? Can the condition get worse with time? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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A hysterectomy is a medical procedure whereby the uterus is partially or totally removed from a woman’s body, thereby making it impossible for her to become pregnant. In mid-September, a whistleblower alleged that forced hysterectomies had been carried out on unsuspecting migrants at an ICE detention centre in the American state of Georgia. Dawn Wooten, a former nurse at the facility, made a complaint of medical neglect and a high rate of hysterectomies to the Department of Homeland Security. She is quoted as saying: “everybody’s uterus cannot be that bad.” and claims the uteruses were passed on to a ‘collector’ doctor outside of the centre.

That’s horrible! Those women are victims of sexual violence.

Yes and it’s sadly not the first time that reports of forced hysterectomies have made international news. An investigation last year in India found that a number of female cane cutters were forced to have their uteruses removed, so they wouldn’t need time off work during menstruation. Women’s rights association Tathapi declared that 36% of females working on sugar cane fields were affected, even being forced to pay for the expensive procedure themselves.

Are there legitimate reasons for carrying out a hysterectomy? How is a hysterectomy carried out? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Antigen tests are a rapid way of diagnosing a person with a medical condition. Common examples include tests for the flu, pregnancy and of course COVID-19. Antigen tests use antibodies to identify antigens in the body. The aim of a COVID-19 antigen test is the same as with the more common PCR test. That is to say, whether a person is infected at the moment of testing. There are several advantages to this method, but also some important drawbacks.

So what’s the difference between an antigen test and a PCR test then?

Both these forms of diagnostic testing are carried out by collecting a fluid sample through a nasal swab. But antigen tests differ from PCR tests in that certain proteins from the virus are detected, rather than its genetic material. Meanwhile, the serology test detects antibodies from a blood sample. Antigen test results can be delivered within 30 minutes. That’s much quicker than with PCR tests, which have to be processed in laboratories. Healthcare professionals believe this quicker turnaround will help to break down transmission chains.

Are antigen tests the best solution to improve the current COVID-19 testing times? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Nobody knows if the cities of the future will be full of robots and flying cars, but lots of engineers are working towards making them smart. Many dream of these connected cities becoming sustainable utopias, while others see them as the stuff of nightmares, with citizens under constant surveillance. The idea behind the smart city is to use state-of-the-art technologies to manage the usual resources and services that exist in urban areas. We’re talking transportation, drainage, lighting and policing for example. The end goal is to improve the quality of those services, and bring down the costs.

Interesting, but do we really need such developments?

We might not realise it at an individual level, but cities face a number of challenges. 50% of the global population lives in cities, a figure which is sure to increase further in coming years. All the city-dwellers out there use up resources, such as water and electricity, and create waste. Managing all this is complicated, which is where technology comes in to help. There are several examples of cities already using connected technology. In Barcelona, intelligent street lighting allows for energy saving. 10,000 LED lamps have been installed across the city, containing motion-detecting sensors. When no-one is around, the lights dim to reduce energy consumption. Meanwhile in Los Angeles, dumpsters are fitted with sensors to alert local authorities on their fill-level in real time. This prevents overfilling and means collection teams won’t need to make an unnecessary trip when the waste level is still low. Other examples of smart city technology include automated watering of plants according to ground dryness and police robots reminding people to respect social distancing rules. In San Francisco, there’s even an app which allows residents to send pictures of dog feces on pavements to the city’s Public Works Department. The name of the app? Snapcrap!

Are we talking about data? In…

The Uyghurs are a Turkish-speaking Muslim ethnic group. Some 11 million live in the Xinjiang autonomous region of northwestern China. They are one of 56 ethnic groups living in the country.

For decades now, the Uyghurs have been subjected to systemic discrimination and intrusive surveillance from the Chinese authorities. But only in the last few years has the issue really been discussed at an international level. Human rights groups have repeatedly demanded official explanations of the repressive measures implemented.

When did repression of the Uyghurs in Xinjiang start?

Back when the People’s Republic of China was declared by Mao Zedong in 1949, Uyghurs made up 75% of the Xinjiang region’s population. In 2010 that figure had dropped to 45%, compared to 40% of the Han Chinese majority ethnic group.

It’s claimed that the Chinese powers set out to deliberately repopulate Xinjiang with Han Chinese, and diminish the presence of minorities.

Relations between the Hans and Uyghurs have been complicated since the 18th century. The Xinjiang Independence movement has long sought to establish the region as a homeland for the Uyghurs, wishing to rename it East Turkistan.

In response to the movement’s growth in the late 20th century, as well as 9/11, the Chinese government started introducing counter-measures. Last year, the New York Times obtained hundreds of pages of leaked Communist Party documents which exposed the intentional crackdown on Muslims.

These included secret speeches from Chinese President Xi Jinping, who expressed his wish to be much harsher and show no pity, after a Uyghur terrorist attack killed 31 people at a train station in 2014. In 2016, he appointed a new party leader to the region, charged with “deradicalising” its inhabitants.

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Peter Pan was the original Boy Who Wouldn’t Grow Up, a character from J.M. Barrie’s 1911 children’s novel. But some people also struggle with adulthood for a long time, due to the “real world” responsibilities it brings.

American psychoanalyst Dan Kiley noticed this pattern of behaviour in some of his patients during the 1970s and 80s. He wrote a book entitled “The Peter Pan Syndrome: Men Who Have Never Grown Up.” While Kiley’s work focused on men, the so-called Peter Pan Syndrome can affect women too.

What are the symptoms of Peter Pan Syndrome then?

Kiley noticed that many young adults were afraid of growing up and bearing the weight of adulthood on their shoulders. Once reaching an adult age, they continued to remain “kidults”.

It’s not a recognised condition with a clinical diagnosis, but there is some consensus about the signs and attitudes relating to Peter Pan Syndrome. Those who have the syndrome often struggle with relationships, showing emotional unavailability and avoiding addressing issues.

Finding or holding onto a job may also be a point of difficulty. Peter Pans might bet their hopes on a longshot dream like becoming a professional athlete or self-supporting actor.

The syndrome is often discussed alongside narcissism, as there are some similarities, such as a failure to accept accountability or a fear of criticism for example. But Peter Pans don’t necessarily meet the criteria for narcissistic personality disorder, or always have narcissistic traits.

So what’s behind this syndrome then?

A lot of the time, people affected by Peter Pan Syndrome haven’t fully lived their youth and have been thrown into adulthood too quickly. In other cases, it may be people who have experienced a
violent trauma which ruined their innocence at a young age.

To protect themselves, they unconsciously keep their emotional development at the childhood stage. Michael Jackson is a prominent example of a celebrity who was …

Green hydrogen is an alternative to fossil fuels which is made by using renewable energy technologies.

In reality, manufacturers have been using hydrogen as an energy source for years, but only grey hydrogen, which has a highly polluting production process. So could green hydrogen be the sustainable fuel of the future?

There are certainly promising signs; it can power cars, producing three times more energy than petrol for the same weight. Furthermore, it stocks electricity significantly better than our current batteries.

Wow, that sounds amazing. So, where can I find some green hydrogen then?

That’s the issue. Let’s go back to chemistry 101 and talk about the non-toxic colourless gas known as hydrogen.

If you remember the periodic table, you should know that hydrogen is element number one, and its symbol is the letter H. It’s the simplest element and the most abundant chemical substance in the universe.

However, it can’t be found in its pure state on planet Earth. Rather, it is found in various compounds with carbon, known as hydrocarbons. And of course in molecular forms like water, which has a chemical formula of H20. That means two atoms of hydrogen for one atom of oxygen.

Until now, manufacturers have used different techniques to separate hydrogen from other elements. For example mixing methane and steam at 1000°C or burning charcoal at over 1200°C. As a result, for every kilo of hydrogen produced, 10kg of CO2 is also emitted. Current hydrogen production pollutes as much as global air transport.

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Why are we so slow to become aware of climate change and act against it? The explanation may lie in our brains, which are affected by environmental amnesia.

This term was invented in 1999 by American psychologist Peter H. Khan. He theorised that humans were forgetting the history of the environment, or more accurately becoming used to its degradation from generation to generation.

Children tend to base their view of what is a “normal” environment on what they experience at a young age. This is true even though in reality they are increasingly growing up in polluted ecosystems.

When they grow older, it then becomes difficult to change their viewpoint, as that norm has become their reference point.

I guess it’s hard to ‘forget’ something you’ve never seen yourself!

Fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly discussed the similar concept of a “shifting baseline syndrome” in 1995. He noted that fishing researchers tended to assess stock based on the norm at the start of their career. That didn’t necessarily take into account that the stock level was already depleted compared to previous generations.

Many were unable to accurately identify the baseline population size of how abundant a species of fish was before human exploitation.

So why does this happen then?

We usually remember the history of our ancestors, from ancient times to the World Wars. That is because we are taught about it at school from an early age, whereas the history of the environment is seldom taught, if at all. In addition, many of us live in urban areas, further and further away from nature.

National Trust research published in 2018 showed that UK children play outdoors for an average of 4 hours per week, which is less than half than their parents’ generation.

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Situated in South America, the Amazon tropical rainforest is home to somewhere between 50 and 70% of the world’s biodiversity, according to the World Wildlife Fund.

It stretches across Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana, Ecuador, Bolivia and most of all Brazil, which contains 60% of the Amazon alone.

Huge fires are currently ripping through various parts of the rainforest, which could end up being even worse than the 2019 outbreak. This is closely linked to the issue of deforestation.
After more than a decade of downward trajectory, Amazon deforestation has risen abruptly in the last two years.

We’ve been talking about deforestation in the Amazon for a long time; when did it actually start?

Deforestation began in the 1960s, but went up considerably between 1991 and 2003. Several local, national and international factors are to blame.

There have been huge peaks in deforestation over the years, while measures taken by former Brazilian President Lula had some impact in slowing the rate in the first decade of the 21st century.

In 2009, a Greenpeace report claimed that 80% of the deforested area in Brazil was being used for cattle farming. Soy plantations were also cited as a key problem. Trees are cut down for timber, then the cleared land is used for grazing cattle or cultivating soybeans.

In the first six months of 2020, 3000km2 of forest have been cut down.The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organisation has stated that Brazil is the country where the most forest has been lost in the last decade.

What has happened since Jair Bolsonaro became head of state in Brazil?

Unfortunately, it’s had a real negative impact. When Bolsonaro became President in January 2019, deforestation immediately increased by 54%. And that trend has continued since.

Bolsonaro encouraged cattle farmers and miners to ramp up operations in the Amazon. Their deforestation is often illegal, with many accused of deliberate…

Transhumanism is all about improving the human condition by enhancing our intellect and physiology.

From 2021, billionaire Elon Musk is planning to test brain implants on human beings. With his Neuralink device, he is looking to create an interface to treat and enhance our brains. So is the merging of man and machine just around the corner?

The transhumanist movement advocates surpassing our biological limits through technology. That means using tools such as implants or chips to cure illnesses, improve performance and even prevent death. And humans have been dreaming of immortality since time began. Transhumanism is a bit like the digital version of the fountain of youth or the philosopher’s stone.

But this time around, it’s not a fantasy - are we really are going to become transhumans?

Elon Musk, head of Tesla and Starlink, believes strongly in transhumanism. His Neuralink project promises to create a neural interface which cures epilepsy or Parkinson’s. With time, the aim is to allow our brains to communicate directly with computers.

In late August, he introduced a pig called Gertrude at a press demo. The Neuralink brain-machine interface was implanted in her brain, with her brain signals analysed by a computer which could predict her movements. Musk used the occasion to announce that American health authorities had given permission for similar tests on humans to begin in 2021.

But beyond PR and marketing, the reality is that Musk himself hasn’t really invented anything. Such techniques have been around for years. One of the first examples dates back to 2006, when scientists helped Matthew Nagle, a young paralysed man, to control a mouse cursor using a chip in his brain! Since then, mind-controlled prosthetic arms and hands have also been developed, sometimes without the need for a brain implant. Thanks to these transhuman inventions, scientists hope to make blind people see again and help paralysed people to walk…

The Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries is an international cartel currently made up of thirteen member states. Over the years, it has played an important role in the global economy, coordinating the petroleum policies of its members. But right now, its influence is waning, due in no small part to the Covid-19 pandemic.

OPEC was created in 1960 in Baghdad. At the time, there was a high level of competition between petrol companies, meaning prices were low. The main petrol-producing Arabic countries therefore decided to join forces to rival Western companies. Together, they decided to produce less petrol, forcing prices up as a result.

All about supply and demand, huh!

And it worked! That’s how founding members Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait and Venezuela increased their power on the international scene. By determining petrol prices, they were directly influencing the world economy. OPEC’s actions even led to the first oil crisis in 1973. During the Yom Kippur war, its members decided to stop supplying petrol to allies of Israel. The effect was immediate, with the price of a barrel increasing fourfold in just a few months.

Despite this exploit, OPEC member countries haven’t always enjoyed great diplomatic relations between one another. Due to wars and disunity, its influence on petrol prices is more and more limited. OPEC’s current member countries are between them home to over 80% of the world’s proven oil reserves.

Wow, they really are the petroleum cartel!

And yet combined they only account for 40% of global oil production. That’s because OPEC has serious competition from other countries, in particular the United States. In the last few decades, the US has become the number one petroleum producer in the world.

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