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Novichok is a family of chemical agents which disrupts communication between nerves and muscles. Its name means newcomer in Russian and it was developed in closed laboratories during the Cold War, as part of the Soviet Foliant programme.

The international community only discovered the existence of Novichok in the early 1990s, after a Russian chemist revealed the truth about the programme in a Moscow daily newspaper.

In early September 2020, Russian opposition leader Alexei Navalny came out of the medically induced coma he had been in for three weeks. Tests carried out at a military laboratory in Germany, where Navalny was hospitalised, showed that he had been poisoned with a Novichok nerve agent.

The substance exists in two forms: liquid, which can be mixed into food or drink; and solid, as a powder.

Is Novichok poisoning lethal then?

Novichoks bind to the acetylcholinesterase enzyme, known as AChE for short. Its role is to break down the acetylcholine neurotransmitter when released into synapses.

Symptoms of novichok poisoning can include nausea, spasms, heart failure and respiratory arrest, leading to death through suffocation. The lack of oxygen can quickly lead to significant brain damage.

Novichok agents are at least five times as lethal as other chemical agents such as VX or Sarin. Anyone who has been poisoned needs immediate medical attention if they are to survive.

In the case of Navalny, he started feeling the effects of the poisoning on August 20th, while on a flight from Siberia to Moscow. He was then quickly evacuated to Berlin in a medical airplane.

Although Navalny has now come out of his coma, doctors can’t rule out long-term effects.

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Historical negationism refers to the practice of manipulating historical records to deny that certain events happened, or distort the narrative around them.

The term is relatively recent, having been coined by French historian Henry Rousso in 1987, relating to Holocaust Denial. Six million Jews were murdered by the Nazi regime during the Second World War.

Holocaust denial is certainly one of the most well-known and common examples of negationism. But similar distortion strategies have been seen relating to other genocides and war crimes across the world.

Negationism is a crime in some countries like Germany, while elsewhere the approach is more cautious, due to questions about freedom of speech. Other laws can apply to negationist statements, if they are also of a hateful or discriminatory nature.

So what exactly does negationism look like?

Techniques include using forged documents to justify an alternative version of events, creating doubt about genuine documents, manipulating statistics and deliberately mistranslating texts. Then you’ve got the destruction of physical evidence through book burning or smashing statues.

In the case of Holocaust Denial, some deny the existence of the gas chambers in concentration camps. They downplay the extent of Hitler’s Final Solution, claiming that the Nazis merely deported Jews and didn’t exterminate them. Others recognise that there was mass murder, but put the death toll significantly lower than the accepted figure of 5-6 million.

Surveys in recent years have shown there is still a shocking level of Holocaust denial in the 21st century. Just last year, a survey found that 5% of UK adults do not believe the Holocaust took place. In other regions, like Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, the Middle East and North Africa, awareness levels are much lower. But among those who have heard of the Holocaust, only half or less believe it has been accurately described by history.

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The Great Barrier Reef is planet Earth’s largest living structure. It has remarkably rich biodiversity, but is gradually disappearing due to pollution caused by humans. Tourists have been absent from the reef since the beginning of the Covid-19 pandemic. But paradoxically, this isn’t likely to help the situation. The reef is located in the sea off the coast of North-East Australian territory Queensland. Its surface area is larger than that of Italy and it can even be seen from space! In some places the corals can be found several miles underwater; in others just under the surface. According to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, the diverse Reef ecosystem is home to 1625 species of fish, including 1400 coral reef species. Then you’ve got over 3000 species of molluscs, 630 species of echinoderm, 14 breeding species of sea snakes, 215 species of birds, six species of marine turtles, 30 species of whales and dolphins, 133 species of sharks and rays, and much more. Among them are many vulnerable and endangered species.

Well it sounds like they won’t be there for much longer, if the situation is as bad as I understand?

Indeed, the Great Barrier Reef is under threat. It’s estimated that up to half the corals have disappeared in the last few years. One of the biggest dangers to the reef is the crown-of-thorns starfish, which feeds on coral and has few predators.

So why are they suddenly invading the Barrier Reef? And what about the tourism? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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What is cancel culture ?
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Cancel culture is the popular practice of withdrawing support for an individual or company, to such an extent that they become irrelevant as a result. This is usually due to something the person has done or said that is considered offensive. Cancel culture has become an effective tool for so-called social justice movements, with feminist, antiracist and LGBTQ+ activists incr easingly adopting the tactic. It tends to involve the use of social media to call for a boycott of an individual, who may or may not be a public figure. This online shaming can include fair criticism, insulting and harassment to destroy the person’s reputation. Many have suggested that cancel culture has now gone too far, including former US President Barack Obama.

Well, internet users can be very sensitive can’t they? One clumsy tweet and social media goes into a frenzy!

And it’s not just present-day tweets that are used as justification for “cancelling” someone. In some cases, posts from many years ago have been dug up, screenshotted and shared all over the internet. The term “clicktivists” is used mostly in a negative way to label those who use social media to shame others online, mainly to boost their own egos. In July 2020, a group of 150 activists, writers and academics called for an end to cancel culture. Part of their open letter, which was published in Harper’s Bazaar magazine, reads as follows: “The free exchange of information and ideas, the lifeblood of a liberal society, is daily becoming more constricted.” J.K. Rowling, Salman Rushdie and Margaret Atwood were among those to put their name to the letter.

Cancel culture is all the rage at the moment, isn’t it?! In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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The news was broken as an exclusive by the Guardian less than two weeks ago, drawing attention to a crisis which has been getting worse since the start of the Covid-19 pandemic. Famous British street artist Banksy had funded a project to carry out rescue missions in the Mediterannean Sea, which more and more migrants are trying to cross from North Africa to Europe. To do this, he relaunched a former French navy boat, 30 metres long, painted in pink and depicting a young girl with windswept hair, holding out a heart-shaped safety buoy. The name of the boat? The Louise Michel, after the 19th century French anarchist feminist of the same name.

Well that’s a fitting name for such a project!

On board the Louise Michel are 10 European activists who have significant experience in sea rescue. The NGO vessel is commanded by German captain Pia Klemp, whose ships have saved several thousand people in recent years. An email sent from Banksy to Klemp last year reads as follows: “Hello Pia, I’ve read about your story in the papers. You sound like a badass.” He then offered to buy a boat with the money he had made from his migrant crisis-themed artwork. The plan was carried out secretly between London, Berlin and Spain, so that European authorities would be totally unaware. The boat’s existence only became public knowledge due to having saved 90 people, off the coast of Libya. Some of those survivors had fuel burns and other injuries. The crew carried out a second rescue mission the same night, taking the total number of migrants saved to 220. One person had already died when found on a rubber dinghy. The Louise Michel being able to accommodate a maximum capacity of 120 people, many had to spend several hours on a liferaft deployed alongside. Unable to move their boat, the crew made repeated emergency calls for assistance to Malta and Italy, the closest European countries.

Did anyone come to their help? So will the migrants now be…

Collapsology is the transdisciplinary study of how our industrial civilisation could collapse, and indeed what may come afterwards. Its ideas are gaining in visibility and popularity. The term collapsology is a neologism, having been created in 2015. It was popularised by French authors Pablo Servigne and Raphael Stevens, who that year published a book called How Everything Can Collapse. As far back as 1972, the Meadow Report published by MIT researchers warned of the risks of exponential population and economic growth on a planet where resources are limited. One of the main ideas of collapsology is that human activity is affecting the planet in a negative and lasting way. It is to blame for global warming, a loss of biodiversity and the increase in natural disasters.

Well, there’s nothing new in those ideas, really.

Collapsologists go even further by linking what Servigne and Stevens call “systemic instabilities''. This refers to the various crises the world is undergoing: Economic, health, environmental, war, democractic, and so on. Worse still, it’s already too late to save the situation. The combined impact would see civilisation as we know it collapse by 2050. Collapsologists say that by then, us humans will be faced with drastic food, water and housing shortages.

So we’re all screwed then! In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Flexitarianism is a portmanteau word combining flexible and vegetarianism. It’s a mostly vegetarian way of eating which nevertheless allows for occasional meat dishes. The aim is to reduce red meat and animal protein consumption, replacing them with high-protein plant foods.This type of diet is becoming increasingly common, and the word flexitarian was added to the Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary in 2012.

So if I understand correctly, being flexitarian is basically being a part-time vegetarian.

That’s more or less right. Many people try flexitarianism as preparation for going full veggie. It makes the transition easier, without making you feel like you’re going cold turkey. All foods are allowed. Fruit, vegetables, cereal, dairy products and fats can be eaten every day, along with an occasional serving of meat or fish, when there’s no plant-based alternative. Flexitarians don’t only limit the quantity of meat in their diet. On the occasions they do eat meat, they also pay close attention to where products come from. They may choose to only consume meat and produce that has come from an organic farm, where animals are raised free-range. Sustainability is a key concern, as meat production has a high carbon footprint. It’s estimated that livestock is responsible for 18% of all greenhouse gas emissions. More and more people are avoiding meat, in order to eat more responsibly.

But I’ve been eating meat all my life. How am I supposed to know how to cook and eat all these plant-based products? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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While summer 2020 draws to an end, the COVID-19 pandemic is far from being over. Some European countries are seeing increased infection rates and have reinforced public health measures in anticipation of a second wave. A recent Scottish study suggested that just 10% of those infected could be responsible for 80% of infections. The term super-spreaders has emerged to describe those who spread the virus to a greater number of people than the R0 reproduction rate.

So are these 10% to blame for everyone else getting contaminated?

It’s not quite that simple. Everything is linked to that R0 rate; the average number of people we infect when we have a contagious disease. Of course if the R0 rate was three, not every single person would have the same level of infectivity - it’s just an average. Some would infect many more than three, and others none at all. So there are other important indicators to take into account. Firstly you’ve got the dispersion factor, which is represented by the K value. This sheds light on how the transmission rate varies. As Dr Adam Kucharski recently told The Guardian: “The general rule is that the smaller the K value is, the more transmission comes from a smaller number of infectious people.” The latest studies suggest that the K value for COVID-19 is between 0.1 and 0.5, which seems to back up the idea that super-spreaders are generating the majority of transmissions.

Who are these super-spreaders then? It sounds like children do in fact spread COVID-19 after all? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Fan fiction refers to texts written by a fan using characters or storylines from another existing story, usually a popular novel, series, film or video game. They are also known as fanfics, and in the digital age, the quantity of such works is exploding! Fan fiction has even become recognised as a literary genre, and has created a unique niche for itself in the publishing industry. Fan fictions were first published in the 1960s and 70s. Star Trek fans have long been known for their passionate following. So it’s little surprise that Trekkies came up with the first early such texts in their fanzines. A similar trend emerged around the same time in Japan. Manga fans began producing independently published comics and novels, known as doujinshi. The creation of the internet allowed fan fiction to develop on dedicated sites and forums. The largest online collection can be found at fanfictions.net. The site has over 2.2 million registered users, who write in 40 different languages!

What are the common characteristics of fan fiction then?

Generally speaking, a piece of fan fiction focuses on one or more characters. The author looks more closely at the character’s personality and psychology. Certain elements of the original story, like the main characters and settings, remain unchanged. This part of the source narrative is referred to as “canon” by fans, which is short for canonical fictional universe. But a fanfic can also take place in an alternative universe, known as an AU. Fan fiction terminology includes an extensive range of genres, subgenres and other jargon terms. For example, slash fiction tells stories about relationships between two characters of the same sex, like Sherlock Holmes and Doctor Watson. The most well-known franchises like Star Wars, Harry Potter and Marvel comics have hundreds or thousands of fanfics. Harry Potter in particular inspired the imagination of fans, with a multitude of alternative endings emergi…

An authoritarian regime is a form of government which monopolises authority and restricts political freedoms. Such regimes have strong central power and little accountability to their population. Authoritarianism is effectively the opposite of democracy. The term has come back into the news of late, with the reelection of Alexander Lukashenko as President of Belarus. He will now serve a sixth consecutive term, having remained head of state since 1994. His regime is considered authoritarian. Indeed, international media often refer to Lukashenko as “Europe’s last dictator”.

So what are the characteristics of an authoritarian regime?

One that immediately springs to mind is repression. Authoritarian regimes often resort to illegitimate tactics to enforce their power, such as the use of force. Another is how political opponents are, let’s say, ‘controlled’. That’s a euphemism because they are often imprisoned or disappear completely. Political pluralism is restricted and any anti-regime activities are swiftly suppressed. There are no trade unions and no NGOs. And the list goes on and on. Under an authoritarian regime, violating the freedom of the press and locking up journalists are common practice. This happens frequently in countries like China, Iran and Egypt. National television channels are run by the state, with no place for independent media, who often end up in exile from their home country. To enforce censorship, some authoritarian regimes have cut internet access.This was done for a five-day period in Gabon in 2016, after the announcement of President Ali Bongo’s reelection. Meanwhile, other regimes in Kazakhstan, Iraq and Iran have forced citizens to use an internet certificate in order to monitor their browsing activity.

Are there many authoritarian regimes in the world today? And why don’t other countries take sanctions against them?

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The Istanbul Convention is an international human rights treaty which was signed in 2011 by 45 European countries. It came into effect in August 2014 and was the first legally binding instrument to establish rules combatting violence against women. Its full name is the ‘Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence’. A bit of a mouthful, we think you’ll agree! The Council of Europe is less well-known than the European Union, although it actually predates it, having been founded back in 1949. The organisation has a reputation for promoting the protection of women, due to several campaigns over recent decades. The convention’s main aims are to prevent violence against women from occurring, protect victims and ensure perpetrators are punished.

So what exactly is in the convention?

Like all European texts, the convention is set out in a specific, structured way. writing sound It has 81 articles and 12 chapters, defining gender violence as a violation of human rights. The preamble states that “violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between women and men, which have led to domination over, and discrimination against, women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women.” It also clearly sets out the acts and forms of discrimination which could cause physical, sexual, psychological or economic harm to women. So it’s a hugely significant text for countries which have ratified it, so long as they respect it. States have to put in place measures to counter such violence, carry out awareness campaigns and educate their population on gender equality.

Why is the Istanbul Convention making headlines now in 2020? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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OnlyFans is a digital content platform which operates on a subscription model. As with social media platforms, when you follow a user, you get access to that person’s content. Since being launched in the UK in 2016, the service has drawn criticism from some quarters. One key difference with other social networks is that it enables content creators to charge fans for access to their images and videos. It’s a whole new way for influencers to make money online.

So it’s a bit like a paid version of Instagram is it?

Onlyfans subscriptions tend to range from $5 to $50 per month. Once a fan subscribes to an influencer’s account, they can view their content and send them private messages. So the premise is that to see exclusive content, you have to pay. And the rules around what can be published are pretty liberal, compared to Instagram’s strict policy on nudity. In fact, OnlyFans has strong links with the adult entertainment industry, counting many sex workers among its users. Some media outlets have referred to the platform as the ‘Instagram of porn’. Users are allowed to share images of themselves in little or no clothing, and even pornographic videos. And it’s all completely legal, as long as the people in the images are of age. To create an account, you must be over 18 and submit proof of age. But it’s not completely all about nudes. Some musical artists are active on OnlyFans, including rapper Cardi B. What’s in it for them, you might be wondering? Well they can host private shows for their fans and share exclusive footage from the filming of a music video, for example. Fitness coaches also share workout routines and personalised tips. As paying subscribers, the fans are also to some extent customers. So there’s a certain expectation that content creators will regularly deliver new pictures and video clips, to maintain the link with their online community.

So why are people talking about OnlyFans at the moment? In under 3 minu…

An oil spill is a form of pollution whereby petrol is released into the sea or ocean due to human activity. This is sometimes accidental, sometimes intentional. In both cases the environmental and social consequences can be disastrous. Just a month ago, a Japanese-owned cargo ship transporting 4,000 tonnes of fuel oil crashed into a coral reef near to the coast of Mauritius. The ship leaked nearly 1,000 tonnes of oil into the pristine waters, which are known for their rich biodiversity.

So what is the impact on the planet?

An oil spill is a real environmental catastrophe. The oil itself can cause irreversible damage to ecosystems by impacting the whole food chain. News coverage often includes dramatic images of birds or other animals covered in oil. Unable to escape, they generally die of suffocation. Then you’ve also got economic repercussions to consider. A huge effort is required to clean up the coastline, including suspending tourism in the affected area, as well as fishing and aquaculture. Cleanup teams sometimes use chemical products called dispersants. Their purpose is to break down oil into small droplets, clearing it from the water’s surface. This makes it less likely the oil slick will reach the shoreline. But some types have been labelled harmful by environmental organisations, due to their toxic nature.

Are there other ways of cleaning up after an oil spill? How do such large-scale disasters come about? And do they happen often? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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The ancient Greeks had two words for “time”. The first, Chronos, refers to chronological time which can be clearly measured. Meanwhile Kairos is more about quality. It is used when talking about an “opportune moment”. As the saying goes, timing is everything! It was originally used in science by Hippocrates, who is seen as the father of medicine. He and his students suggested that there were two ways of failing when treating an illness: either taking action too early or too late. Of course in between the two, you have the opportune moment to carry out treatment. In rhetoric, kairos is a strategy based on the timeliness of a line of argument. Aristotle connected it to his rhetorical triangle of ethos, pathos and logos, teaching that in each situation, the right moment will come to use one over the others. So it wasn’t enough to simply express a correct idea. It was considered just as important to state it at the right time. Kairos is therefore also considered a mode of persuasion in rhetoric. In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle introduces the notion of kairos to analyse human actions. Taking advantage of kairos is to seize the rare moment when our desires and fate coincide.

So how can I make sure I don’t miss out on kairos?!

In so far as many of the circumstances which define kairos are external, there are no strict rules on how to benefit from it. Seizing an opportunity isn’t an exact science after all. It requires finesse, flair, intuition and various other qualities. You can sometimes create a situation which allows you to communicate at the opportune time. Some observers have suggested making time for kairos moments on a daily basis, especially in the world of work. Kairos time may help us achieve objectives, reduce burnout and keep us passionate about what we do.

Do you have any concrete examples then? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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The sebum cure is a natural hair care method, which consists in avoiding shampoo for a given period of time. Certain internet users have taken advantage of self-isolation to try the sebum cure without having to put up with greasy hair in public.

So how does it work and is it really effective?

Shampoo addicts know for a fact: greasy hair is a true vicious cycle. The greasier it is, the more you wash it, the faster it becomes greasy again. That might have to do with the aggressive nature of some shampoos which irritate the scalp, stimulate sebaceous glands and strip your hair off the sebum that protects the scalp from aggressive factors. So as a way of breaking the cycle of “it gets greasy, I attack it, it gets greasy again” certain influencers promote the sebum cure. The point is quite simple: forget about shampoo for about a month and let your hair get greasy! As you proceed with the cure, it is recommended however to brush your hair daily to remove dust and distribute the sebum evenly along the hair shaft. If you have long hair, in a few weeks the sebum will reach the hair ends and its secretion will self-regulate in a natural way. The hair coated with sebum will be just as well-groomed as if treated with vegetable oils, for example.

Proponents of the sebum cure stress the multiple advantages it offers: it facilitates hair growth, makes your hair more voluminous, softer and shinier. Self-isolation comes in handy. Although under different circumstances it’s also possible to go through with the cure by wearing your hair in a bun or putting on an accessory, like a headscarf. And don't forget to brush off the first jerk that comes your way: “Yup, my hair is greasy, do you have a problem with that?” Thirty days later, despite the joy going back to shampoo might bring, it is recommended to opt for a softer kind and take it slow!

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Caffè sospeso literally translates to English as a ‘suspended coffee’. It’s an Italian tradition whereby cafe customers pay for an extra coffee that will be put aside, for a poor person to claim at a later time. The caffè sospeso idea can be extended to other types of food, and it’s seen a revival in popularity during the Covid-19 pandemic. It’s believed the caffè sospeso tradition was born in Naples’ historic Gambrinus café, around the start of the 20th century. The idea was simple: if a person felt like they had had a lucky day, they would pay for two coffees instead of one. The second ‘suspended’ coffee would later be given to the first poor person who asked for one. And by the way, you can suspend other items too, the concept is not just limited to coffee. It could be a sandwich, bottle of water or pastry for example.

Nice idea! Is it only the Italians who are big on solidarity then?

A similar principle has existed in Turkish bakeries for centuries, relating to bread. A customer asks for two loaves of bread, and tells the baker the second one is askida ekmek, translating to “bread on a hanger”, or “suspended bread”. Back in Naples and Italy, the tradition slowly became less common, perhaps due to the postwar economic boom, globalisation and ever-expanding tourism. That was the case at least until 2011, when the Mayor of Naples called for a return of the tradition, by creating a dedicated day called the Giornata del caffè sospeso. This development created a buzz on social media, and the practice of ‘paying it forward’ became known in other countries. Many appreciated this show of solidarity. From then onwards, other types of businesses picked up on this in Europe, North America and Asia.

So how do we know for sure that what we pay forward actually gets given out to a person in need? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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2008, 2012, 2016, 2020... a leap year comes along every four years, lasting 366 days instead of 365 as you probably know. In a leap year, the shortest month of the year, February, has 29 days instead of 28. So if you’re born on February 29th, you only get to celebrate on that exact date when a leap year occurs. Every other year, you’ll need to decide on which date to celebrate: February 28th or March 1st. Most people opt for the latter out of superstition. People born on February 29th are sometimes known as ‘leaplings’, ‘leapers’ or ‘leap year babies’. Some famous leaplings include rapper Ja Rule, actress Caitlin E.J. Meyer and motivational speaker Tony Robbins. Leaplings should beware the leap year bug, which affects computer systems that are programmed with the rule that a year always has 365 days. Similar issues can affect administrative paperwork.

So where did the weird idea of adding an extra calendar day every four years come from?

We actually measure time based on planet Earth’s rotations on its own axis and orbits around the sun. The planet takes one day to fully rotate around itself, like a spinning top! It takes a lot longer to complete one full orbit of the sun however, adding up to one year or slightly over 365 days. This is known as a tropical or solar year. That’s right, the duration is over 365 days because a tropical year is never made up of an exact number of days. When the Earth gets back to its starting position after a full orbit, it has rotated 365 times on its own axis, plus an additional quarter-rotation which makes all the difference. If you want to be really precise, you should know that the exact length of a tropical year can vary by up to 30 minutes. We could simply delay the start of every year by a quarter of a day to compensate for the difference. But that would end up affecting the time of day, as well as our system of seasons in a year. So we stick to 365 days, and add an extra day every leap year to best sync…

Nudge theory was developed back in 2008 by future Nobel Prize winner Richard Thaler, along with legal scholar Cass Sunstein. The concept is part of behavioural economics, and uses positive reinforcement to influence groups and individuals. Nudges are small changes to an environment which are simple and inexpensive to put in place. Some of the most well-known examples of nudge theory are rather amusing. The image of a housefly is etched onto each of the urinals in the men’s restrooms at Amsterdam Schiphol airport.

But, what happened in Amsterdam?

It’s not always easy to aim without a target right?! Well, with this in mind, the housefly experiment was carried out at Amsterdam Schiphol, one of Europe’s busiest airports. Back in the 1990s, the image of a fly was etched on urinals in the airport’s toilets. Simply due to having some form of target caused men to instinctively concentrate on their aim. This in turn reduced unwanted splashes from the urinals. Restroom users rejoiced, as did the Dutch airport’s management, who saw their clean-up costs reduced by 80%! In this specific case, the goal was to use a game to encourage greater cleanliness, without encroaching on users’ freedom of choice. It’s a kind of hidden paternalism, which turned out to be more effective than forceful measures like punishment or guilt-tripping. As it turns out, humans are often less rational creatures than we might think. Another nudge technique involves using painted illusions of speed bumps on pedestrian crossing markings, causing approaching drivers to slow down. These techniques are inspired by behavioural science, a field in which public authorities have only invested fairly recently. Meanwhile marketers have been testing out such ideas for a long time.

Are we saying nudges are a form of manipulation? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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The whole world is streaming TV shows and series more than ever before. And yet many of these shows wouldn’t even exist without the role of the showrunner. This person is seen as top of the food chain, and contributes to almost every aspect of production, from the writing room to the filming studio.

The all-encompassing showrunner role has been compared to that of an orchestra conductor. It’s best known in the United States, but it’s gaining in popularity elsewhere too.

You can't really compare the role of the showrunner to that of a director? Although the showrunner is generally present during filming to exercise creative authority, they often rely on one or more directors. TV shows have a lot of moving parts, with a large team effort needed.

The showrunner position is therefore really a mix of creative and managerial responsibilities. They have to make sure everything runs as intended, all the while adhering to the creative vision.

Furthermore, the showrunner has the greatest accountability of anyone working on a series. Martin Gero, showrunner for NBC drama Blindspot, has gone on record saying: “The buck stops here...If anything is wrong with the show, the showrunner is to be blamed. We're involved in every creative and financial decision..."

Typically, showrunners are credited as “executive producers”. But the role differs from that of a traditional TV producer role, which is more linked with a show’s physical aspects, like cast negotiations and crew hiring.

Interestingly, showrunners usually come from a writing background. A typical career path involves working their way up through the writer’s room, from assistant to staff writer to editor and so forth.

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Since the beginning of the covid-19 pandemic, wearing a face covering has become normalised in many places. But an increasing number of people have come out in opposition of making face masks compulsory. Their main argument is that it’s a breach of individual freedom. Some believe that masks aren’t actually effective, and even question the need for other public health measures like social distancing.

Are there really that many anti-maskers out there?

There have been protests across many countries, including the USA, Canada, the UK and Germany. The common message is that forcing citizens to wear face masks is oppressive and anti-democratic. On the 2nd of August, 15,000 protesters gathered in Berlin, brandishing placards and wearing T-shirts with slogans such as: “My health, my choice” and “Resistance”. Some conspiracy theorists believe that the coronavirus was simply invented by the media, or blown out of all proportion. Journalists at the scene reported that many participants were anti-vaccine militants, and members of a far-right group were also present. Germany has so far seen a relatively low total of coronavirus deaths, under 10,000 at the time of recording. But citizens from other harder hit countries are also at the forefront of the anti-mask movement. It all started in the United States, taking on political and ideological connotations. Anti-mask messages sprung up and spread quickly on social media, leading to a number of small protests. Similar scenes were seen in the United Kingdom and Canada over the following summer months.

And we’ve also seen heads of state criticise the use of face masks? And regardless of people’s views, face coverings have been made compulsory in many places. So how are anti-maskers reacting? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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The city of Beirut was struck by a violent explosion last week, causing over 150 deaths and injuring thousands. The cause of the disaster in the Lebanese capital was ammonium nitrate. Nearly 3000 tonnes of the substance exploded in a warehouse in the city’s port area. This chemical compound, otherwise known as NH4 N03, is mostly used as an agricultural fertilizer, improving productivity. It’s made by reacting ammonia with nitric acid. Its appearance is similar to that of salt; it’s a crystal-like, odourless white solid. While ammonium nitrate is not flammable itself, it is combustive. It’s mixed with TNT to create explosions in the construction and mining industries.

So how did the Beirut explosion come about?

Ammonium nitrate doesn’t combust easily, but it has to be stored in the right conditions nevertheless. At a temperature of over 210° C, it decomposes into different gases. This reaction releases a very high quantity of energy, creating a shock wave. So isolating the compound from other flammable products is highly important. Depending on storage conditions, the ammonium nitrate in Beirut may have come into contact with other substances, causing the explosion. Since the incident occurred, a number of shocking videos have surfaced on social media and been picked up by news outlets. They show an orange mushroom cloud, which may be toxic gas nitrogen dioxide. It is particularly harmful for humans, irritating airways in the respiratory system. But it’s still difficult to be sure about the exact circumstances. An investigation should shed light on the security flaws which brought about the catastrophe.

How did such a high quantity of ammonium nitrate come to be stored in one location? Has ammonium nitrate caused explosions elsewhere in the past? If the substance is so dangerous, why hasn’t it been banned? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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An internet meme is a viral piece of content which spreads online and is transformed by web users. Memes often grow rapidly, being shared on social media, blogs and by email. Some go viral and become well-known all over the world. Many are somewhat absurd, with no particular meaning or purpose, other than to make people laugh! The word meme first appeared in the 1970s. It was created by British ethologist Richard Dawkins, to explain how ideas replicate, mutate and evolve. The term was reappropriated in the internet age, and even Dawkins himself became a meme, in the new sense of the word! One of the first well-known internet memes dates back to 1996. It’s a video of a 3D dancing baby in a nappy.

OK so internet weirdness is nothing new then!

These days, a meme is an expression of internet culture. Just log in to Instagram, Twitter or Facebook and you can find the same original image transformed in tens of different ways. It grows and evolves for months, then disappears gradually. And memes aren’t just visual, some well-known audio examples include: the Nyan Cat music, the Simpsons laugh, a Hitler film line, the epic sax guy or the Trololo singer. If most of these sounds mean something to us, it’s because we’ve heard them plenty of times. They’ve been transformed by many creative web users, and are now part of popular culture, especially among millennials.

So what causes an idea to become a meme? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Philanthropy is the feeling which pushes people to help those in need. Most often, it’s manifested by the rich giving to the poor. In times of crisis, like the Covid-19 pandemic, calls for philanthropy are commonplace. It’s almost as if private donations can take on the responsibilities of a state and its public institutions. The concept of charity has existed for a long time, and its philosophies are often associated with religion. While there is somewhat of an overlap, philanthropy is not entirely the same thing. Charity seeks to ease the impact of a social problem, whereas philanthropy looks to address the root cause. Some cite the birth of philanthropy as being during the Age of Enlightenment in Europe. But it really developed in late 19th century America, inspired by newly rich businessmen. The premise is simple: if you have a lot of money and you’re a good person, you should share it; give back to society a little of what it has given you.

Let's be real, it's also to have a clean conscience and good reputation, right?

It’s also to have a clean conscience and good reputation. By giving, philanthropists can also receive...even more money! A lot of governments support philanthropy by granting tax reductions. In the United States, this figure is 35% of the donation, while in France it goes as high as 60% for companies. Without a doubt, the most well-renowned philanthropists are Bill and Melinda Gates, who donate 2 billion dollars a year through their foundation. Historically they have been the second largest funder of the World Health Organization, just behind the United States of America. Many other philanthropists create their own nonprofit foundations, to donate to causes like healthcare, education and extreme poverty.

So is it the rich who are going to help us beat Covid-19? And are the rich taking the place of governments then? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Globish is a simplified version of English. In theory, it enables non-native English speakers to communicate with others anywhere across the planet, but it’s also perceived as a danger to other languages, including English. The Lingua Franca was a similar concept which mixed several Latin languages. Between the 13th and 19th centuries, it was used to do business in ports around the Mediterranean Sea. There’s no doubt that English is the equivalent in this day and age. It allows people all around the world to communicate. Well, at least a form of English. Some have referred to this as simplified English, others talk of “English as a lingua franca”. Another alternative name is Globish, a term which was invented in the 2000s by French businessman Jean-Paul Nerrière. He came up with a method for learning and speaking this form of English, which uses simplified grammar structures and only requires a vocabulary of 1,500 common English words.

Do you have any concrete examples and tips?

Here's an example. In globish you don’t say “I went to my niece and nephew's party the other weekend and I played the piano”. Rather you say “At the party of my children's brother the other day, I played an instrument with black and white keys”. Depending on the business sector you work on, it may be wise to learn the related industry jargon. There’s no specific accent but you definitely need to work on your pronunciation. The aim isn’t to sound English in particular, but just to be understood. Nerrière says that globish should be spoken slowly; it’s also important to articulate, use short sentences and avoid idioms or jokes.

Is there an academy for Globish? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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Most of the time, when we hear the word prostate, we associate it with cancer. We don’t necessarily know where it’s situated in the male body and even less so its potential as an erogenous zone! Let’s take an anatomy lesson then. The prostate, or male P-spot, is a small gland around the size of a walnut which can be found just below the bladder. It weighs between 20 and 40 grams, growing bigger as a man ages. Its role in the body is to produce the seminal liquid found in semen. This protects sperm from the acidic environment of the female vagina. The easiest way to access the prostate is through the rectum. And many men have discovered it to be a source of sexual pleasure.

Why this sexual practice is often rejected by heterosexual men?

In our collective subconscious, non-standard sexual practices are often rejected. The traditional expectation is that men are virile. They penetrate women, and aren’t penetrated themselves, even with a finger. But in reality, the idea that prostate play is limited to homosexuals is just a social construct.The prostate is to men what the clitoris was to women for a long time. That is a sexual organ which gives a lot of pleasure, but tends to be forgotten. Many aren’t even aware of its existence. The prostate is a great unknown of male sexuality, cannibalized by the all-powerful penis. It’s also been shown that massage can reduce the risk of prostate cancer, give stronger erections and help those struggling with premature ejaculation. Not to mention the longer and more intense orgasms, felt throughout the body, that can be brought on by prostate stimulation. Finally, there’s no refractory period, unlike with a penile orgasm. So you can have a prostate orgasm and go again shortly after. And you thought only women could have multiple orgasms!

So, how does it work then? In under 3 minutes, we answer your questions!

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